WILSON'S 
PHOTOGRAPHlCS, 


WILSON'S 


PHOTOGRAPHICS 


A  SERIES  OF  LESSONS, 


ACCOMPANIED   BY  NOTES, 


ON    ALL    THE    PROCESSES    WHICH    ARE    NEEDFUL    IN    THE 


jlri  nf 


K  Y 


EDWARD     L.    WILSON, 

EDITOR    OF   THE   "  PHILADELPHIA    PHOTOGRAPHER/'    "  PHOTOGRAPHIC    MOSAICS,"    ETC, 


The  camera  is  mightier  than  the  pen  or  the  pencil. 

PHILADELPHIA: 
PUBLISHED    BY    EDWARD    L.   WILSON, 

912    &    914    CHESTNUT    STREET. 


vYi'7 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1881, 

BY  EDWARD  L.  WILSON, 
In  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington,  D.  C. 


TO  MY  EXCELLENT  FRIEND, 


ruing  jlimm$t 


TN  ACKNOWLEDGMENT    OF    THE    MODEST    AND    UNOSTENTATIOUS  WAY  IN  WHICH    HE 
HAS   DEVOTED  HIMSELF,    FOR   OVER   TWENTY-FIVE  YEARS,  TO   THE 

GROWTH  OF  AMERICAN  PHOTOGRAPHY, 

BY   SECURING    AND    PROVIDING    THE    WHEREWITHAL    TO    PRODUCE    THE    BEST 
RESULTS    IN    THE    BEST    AND    EASIEST    WAY, 

THIS    BOOK    IS  INSCRIBED 
IN    THE    NAME    OF,    AND    FOR,    THE    WHOLE    CRAFT, 

BY  THE  AUTHOR 


PREFACE. 


PHOTOGRAPHY  grows  so  rapidly,  and  so  continuously  widens  its  usefulness,  that 
an  occasional  lesson-book  must  be  issued  in  order  that  the  working  votaries  of  the 
art  may  keep  at  least  alongside.  During  an  intimate  connection  with  it  for  over 
twenty  years,  nearly  eighteen  of  which  have  been  expended  in  the  very  whirl  of 
its  progress, — indeed,  with  an  earnest  shoulder  at  the  wheel, — I  have  preferred  to 
assist  my  colleagues  to  do  the  business  of  book-making,  rather  than  attempt  it 
myself,  owing  to  the  very  profound  sense  I  have  always  had  of  the  responsibility 
and  of  the  magnitude  of  the  undertaking.  The  time,  it  seems  to  me,  has  come,  how- 
ever, when  I  must  speak  out,  and  no  longer  neglect  to  take  my  share  in  this  matter. 
What  follows,  then,  is  the  result  of  my  efforts.  It  is  for  those  who  read  such  pro- 
ductions to  decide  how  satisfactorily  (or  otherwise)  I  have  executed  the  worK. 

I  have  planned  it  after  a  scheme  "different"  from  the  usual  one.  It  would 
have  been  easier  for  me  to  have  gone  on  in  one  continuous  strain  from  beginning 
to  end.  But  so  full  am  I  of  the  imbibings  of  these  twenty  years,  that  were  I  to 
attempt  such  a  course,  the  good  and  generous  words  of  my  co-laborers  would  ooze 
and  flow  out  to  that  extent  that  in  a  little  time  I  would  be  branded  as  the  most 
shamefaced  and  intensest  plagiarist.  Therefore  I  agreed  with  myself  in  the  begin- 
ning that  I  would  tell  what  I  knew  from  experience  in  simple  language — this  for 
the  benefit  and  instruction  of  the  beginner — at  the  heads  of  the  pages,  in  bold  and 
honest  type,  and  then  in  the  smaller  and  more  dignified  letter  following,  elaborate 
with  the  extended  ideas  of  those  who  have  accelerated  the  advancement  of  our  art 
by  their  discoveries,  their  practice,  and  the  publication  of  their  experience.  As 
many  of  these  are  given  a  fair  chance  to  agree  or  disagree  with  me  as  I  could 
well  work  in.  I  am  sorry  I  had  to  leave  anybody  out.  I  first  wrote  my  own  story, 
and  then  I  set  me  to  the  weariness  of  research — which  was  the  hardest  task  of  all — 
through  volumes  of  books  and  magazines,  my  long-used  helpers.  And  after  all, 
how  little  I  have  been  able  to  use  of  the  good  which  has  been  so  freely  given  ! 
You  would  tremble  if  you  only  knew  how  much  larger  this  volume  might  have  been 
made.  And  it  is  due  to  these  helpers  that  I  should  say  more,  besides  appending 
a  list  of  their  distinguished  names.  I  have  drawn  from  them  without  regard  to 
their  rank  or  riches,  except  as  to  the  richness  of  what  they  tell. 

And  to  these  noble  men  and  women  who  have  assisted  me  in  all  these  years  to 
hold  up  the  photographic  colors,  pure  black  and  white,  while  the  "fine  arts" 

(  vii  ) 


Vlii  PREFACE. 

fired  at  and  besieged  us  with  their  sarcastic  shot  and  shell — while  the  world-tide  was 
grinding  and  beating  against  us,  I  give  all  honor  and  praise.  While  I  tried  to 
infuse  enthusiasm  into  others,  they  encouraged  me  to  cheer  and  lead.  I  have  in 
every  possible  instance  added  their  names  also  to  their  helpful  words. 

In  studying  Photographies,  I  would  advise  the  beginner  to  read  the  coarser  type 
continuously  first.  It  will  give  him  about  all  that  he  needs  to  begin  work.  As  he 
progresses,  he  may  appeal  to  the  wide  experience  of  my  worthy  co-workers  for 
more  light. 

I  disclaim  all  originality  in  this  work.  I  do  not  remember  to  have  ever  made 
an  "  original  discovery  "  in  photography  in  my  life  except  one,  and  that  you  will 
find  in  proper  place  in  these  pages.  I  have  prepared  my  work  on  this  peculiar 
plan  because  it  struck  me  as  the  best,  though  through  my  life  I  had  intensely  hated 
books  with  foot-notes,  until  I  read  the  following  lines  from  Butler : 
"  Then  why  should  those  who  pick  and  choose 

The  best  of  all  the  best  compose, 

And  join  it  by  Mosaic  art 

In  graceful  order,  part  to  part, 

To  make  the  whole  in  beauty  suit, 

Not  merit  as  complete  repute 

As  those  who,  with  less  art  and  pain, 

Can  do  it  with  their  native  brain?  " 

Since  then  I  have  come  to  appreciate  the  work  of  the  author  who  consults  wiser 
heads  than  his  own,  and  I  come  into  his  plan  with  due  humility. 

I  have  yielded  to  the  touching  request  to  accompany  my  work  with  my  own 
portrait.  I  do  it,  and  in  sitting  for  it  tried  to  look  cheerful  about  it.  I  did 
it  because  the  picture  does  credit  to  one  of  our  most  able  and  patient  veterans, 
Mr.  F.  Gutekunst,  of  Philadelphia,  and  because  it  serves  as  an  example  of  an- 
gular composition  in  illustration  of  Lesson  A.  The  prints  are  by  the  phototype 
process,  fully  given  in  Lesson  X.  A  better  and  a  beautiful  example  of  this  class 
of  work  is  also  given  further  on,  in  a  plate  showing  eleven  positions  of  the  graceful 
elocutionist,  Miss  Adelaide  Detchon,  which  must  serve  as  useful  studies  in  the  line 
which  I  so  earnestly  desire  to  see  more  followed  by  the  enterprising  and  cultured 
band  of  men  and  women  in  whose  hands  and  power  photography  and  my  Photo- 
graphies now  rest  for  their  future  welfare.  Nearly  every  other  illustration  in 
Photographies  was  made  by  a  photographic  process  of  engraving,  and  therefore  is 
entitled  to  be  considered  as  a  "sun-picture." 

My  excellent  printer  and  tasteful  binder  have  done  their  best  to  help  make  our 
work  a  good  example  of  the  art  of  book-making. 

May  it  all  do  much  towards  the  advancement  of  blessed  photography. 

EDWARD  L.  WILSON. 
PHILADELPHIA,  May  ist,  1881 


INTRODUCTION. 


WHEN  the  Divine  Master  had  "created  the  heaven  and  the  earth,"  He  said, 
''let  there  be  light:  and  there  was  light."  Then  man  was  made,  who  by  the 
genius  given  him  promulgated  "  the  fine  arts."  But,  as  "  in  the  beginning,"  the 
things  pertaining  to  "the  heaven  and  the  earth"  needed  light,  to  give  them  life, 
and  vigor,  and  vim,  and  snap,  and  growth,  so  "the  fine  arts"  needed  photogra- 
phy to  infuse  the  elements  named  into  them  more  thoroughly  than  they  had  ever 
possessed  them  up  to  the  time  of  the  birth  of  the  greatest  of  arts,  forty  years  ago 
or  more,  at  whose  shrine  we  are  the  favored  devotees.  And  we  all  know  that  they 
use  it  and  are  familiar  with  what  it  has  done  for  them,  and  how  they  do  lean  upon 
it  for  courage  and  help. 

Is  it  worth  while,  then,  to  take  up  time  and  space  with  a  lengthy  "  introduction  " 
to  what  follows,  when  every  household  is  already  so  familiar  with  the  workings  of 
photography,  that  it  is  only  a  question  of  a  little  time  when  the  camera  and  the 
lens  will  be  as  much  a  part  of  home-diversion  and  enjoyment  as  the  printing- 
press  and  the  scroll-saw  now  are,  and  ten  times  as  pleasure-giving  and  refining  in 
its  influence  ? 

Yes,  photography  is  already  popular  among  the  masses,  full  of  advantages  to  them, 
and  dearly  beloved  because  of  its  undenied  truthfulness,  and  the  knowledge  and 
happiness  which  it  brings  into  the  family.  It  is  a  willing  helper  and  an  indispen- 
sable one  in  almost  every  direction.  It  lifts  its  searching  eye  to  the  heavens  and 
brings  the  wonders  of  the  planets  to  our  drawing-rooms ;  it  sends  up  its  sensitive 
messengers  away  above  the  clouds  and  they  gather  revelations  which  mystify  and 
confuse  the  senses;  it  creeps  back  into  antiquity  and  reveals  the  histories  of  the 
periods  long  before  the  Saviour  came;  it  takes  up  the  bit  with  electricity,  speeds 
alongside  and  compels  it  to  share  its  mysteries;  it  grapples  with  the  invisible 
musicians  of  the  air  and  wrestles  from  them  a  record  of  their  own  sweetness ;  it 
goes  hand-in-hand  with  the  microscope,  and  helps  it  fill  the  world  with  wondrous 
revelations;  it  has  driven  the  old-time  lecturer  from  the  platform,  and  serves  as 
the  right-hand  helper  of  the  modern  one,  by  illustrating  his  topic  through  the  lan- 
tern ;  it  dives  down  into  the  sea  and  comes  up  smiling  with  a  rich  revelation  of 
what  lies  beneath ;  it  throws  hot  coals  upon  the  heads  of  the  "  fine-art  "  devotees 
who  fain  would  crush  it,  by  giving  them  reproductions  in  size,  color,  and  feeling 

fix  \ 


X  INTKODUCTION. 

of  the  drawings  of  the  old  masters;  in  book  and  magazine  illustration  it  has 
wrought  a  revolution  ;  it  cheers  the  emigrant  on  his  way,  it  helps  hold  the  memo- 
ries of  the  dead  dear  ones  ever  fresh,  and  it  comforts  the  sorrowing  in  all  lands — 
the  rich  and  the  poor ;  it  delves  down  into  the  bowels  of  the  earth  and  brings  up 
the  glittering  likeness  of  the  stalactite  and  the  grim  stories  of  the  catacombs ;  it 
is  a  household  necessity  and  a  public  comfort.  And  yet,  important,  helpful,  un- 
assuming, enterprising,  useful,  indispensable  as  it  is,  photography  claims  to  no  per- 
fectionism. It  is  a  g-r-e-a-t  sinner,  and  yet  it  grows  and  grows — never  grown — 
on  it  grows. 

The  great  Alexanders  of  science  and  discovery  need  not  weep  because  there  are 
no  more  conquests  to  make.  Photography  not  only  opens  up  a  wide  field  yet  for 
research — because  its  necessities  are  still  great — but  it  offers  a  large  enough  tract 
free  of  all  incumbrances  to  satisfy  the  wildest  enthusiast.  Oh,  come  ! 

What  more  can  be  said  for  it  now,  unless  it  be  that  ye  who  will  read  the  instruc- 
tions embodied  in  the  lessons  which  follow,  may  live  to  see  many  of  the  terms  and 
processes  therein  given  rendered  obsolete  by  "future  improvements"?  No  one 
will  dare  say  that  we  yet  have  even  an  approach  to  "  the  process  of  the  future." 

Take  up  Hunt's  Researches  on  Z/g^/ (1854)  and  you  will  read  of  the  "  solai 
phosphoir  "  and  the  "  dentiodides  "  and  the  "epipolized  light";  descriptions  of 
the  "cyanotype,"  the  "callotype,"  the  "aurotype,"  and  the  ''agarics";  the 
wise  words  of  Becquerel  and  Bockman  and  Sir  J.  Herschel  and  Niepce  and 
Davy  and  Daguerre  and  Talbot  and  a  host  of  others.  These  are  all  gone  with 
the  past.  Photographies  with  its  list  of  wise  ones  comes  in  now,  and  it  is  proposed 
to  leave  it  with  you ;  for  after  all,  an  "  introduction  "  will  be  of  no  service  perhaps, 
since,  when  appeal  was  made  to  Mr.  Hunt's  "introduction"  to  see  what  he  had  to 
say  of  our  art  as  it  was  twenty-seven  years  ago,  it  was  found  that  in  a  copy  which 
had  been  through  all  the  stages  of  use  and  abuse,  and  at  last  turned  up  in,  and 
was  rescued  from,  a  second-hand  book-store  in  London,  the  leaves  of  the  "  intro. 
duction"  had  never  been  cut !  One  appeal  then.  Give  Photographies  a  chance 
on  its  introduction  at  least,  if  you  go  no  further. 


AUTHORITIES 


QUOTED      IN      THIS      VOLUME. 


AKERS,  CHARLES. 
ALBEE,  M.  H. 
ANDERSON,  D.  H. 
ANDERSON,  ELBERT. 
ANDRES.  MONS. 
ANTHONY,  H.  T. 
ARGENTUM,  OLD. 

BACHRACH,  D.,JR. 

BAKER,  W.  J. 

BEATTIE,  JOHN. 

BEDFORD,  WILLIAM. 

BENECKE,  R. 

BERKLEY,  HERBERT  B. 

BIGELOW,  L.  G. 

BLACK,  J.  W. 

BLAKE,  JOHN  M. 

BLANCHARD,  VALENTINE. 

BOLTON,  W.  P. 

BOVEY.W.  T. 

BRIDGE,  DR.  NORMAN. 

BRIDLE,  H.  C. 

BROWNE,  J.  C. 

BURGESS,  J.  M. 

BURNET.JOHN. 

BUSEY,  N.  H. 

CARBUTT,  JOHN. 
CHERRILL,  NELSON  K. 
CHLORIDE,  YOUNG. 
CLARK,  FORRESTER. 
CLARKE,  ARCHER. 
CLEMONS,  J.  R. 
CLENCH,  F.  B. 


COCKING,  EDWIN. 
COOPER,  B.  S. 
CRAMER  &  NORDEN. 
CRIEFELDS,HERR. 
CROUGHTON,  GEORGE. 
CUTHBERTSON,  T. 

DAGGETT,  M.  L. 
DALLAS,  DUNCAN  C. 
DARRICAU,  M. 
DA  VINCI,  LEONARDO. 
DAWSON,  R.  W. 
DEBENHAM,  W.  E. 
DENSMORE,  JAY. 
DE  SILVA,  A.  M. 
DISDERI,  M. 
DOUGLASS,  GAYTON  A. 
DUNCAN,  DAVID. 
DUNMORE,  EDWARD. 
DWIGHT,  M.  A. 

EASTHAM,  JOHN. 
EASTMAN,  GEORGE. 
EDER,  DR.  J.  M. 
EDWARDS,  B.  J. 
ELIOT,  F.  G. 
ENGLAND,  WILLIAM. 
ESTABROOKE,  E.  M. 

FABRONIUS,  D.  C. 
FARR,  H.  R. 

FENNEMORE,  GEORGE  H. 
FENTOX,  ARTHUR  F. 
FERGUSON,  WILLIAM. 


FERRARI,  ALONZO. 
FOLSOM.J.H. 
FORREST,  J.  A. 
FRENCH,  C.  M. 
FROTHINGHAM,  REV.  F 
FRY,  SAMUEL. 

GAFFIELD,  THOMAS. 
GARRETT,  C.  ALFRED. 
GATCHEL,  W.  D. 
GIHON,  JOHN  L. 
GILLO,  R. 
GOETCHIUS,  J.  C. 
GOOD,  FRANK  M. 
GRASSHOFF,  J. 
GUERIN,  F.  W. 
GULLIVER,  THOMAS. 

HAAKMAN,  H.  L.  T. 
HALL,  JULIUS. 
HARDWICH,  T.  FRED 
HARDWICK,  P. 
HARMAN,  R.  V. 
HARRINGTON,  NEAL  P. 
HARTMAN,  HANS. 
HAZLITT,  M. 
HEARN,  C.  W. 
HENDERSON,  ALEX. 
HESLER,  ALEXANDER. 
HILLARD,  M. 
HOMAN,  CHARLES. 
HOUGH,  E.  K. 
HOULGRAVE,  H. 
HUGHES,  ALFRED. 
(Xi) 


Xll 


AUTHOKITIES. 


HUGHES,  JABEZ. 

HULL,  CHARLES  WAGER. 

HUSNIK,  PROFESSOR. 

JACKSON,  JOHN. 
JARMAN,  A.  J. 
JEWELL,  FRANK. 

KENT,  J.  H. 
KIBBE,  W.  H. 
KILBURN,  B.  W. 
KIMBALL,  A.  W. 
KREUGER,  ERNEST. 
KURTZ,  WILLIAM. 

LEA,  M.  CAREY. 

LEAKE.J.  C. 

LIBBY,  E.  P. 

LIESEGANG,  DR.  EDWARD 

LOCKWOOD,  MRS.  E.  N. 

LOCKWOOD,  W.  H. 

L.  W.  B. 

MANFIELD,  H. 
MARSHALL,  A. 
MASON,  O.  G. 
MAYLAND,  WILLIAM. 
McINTYRE,  H.  M. 
MERRILL,  JAMES  O. 
MITCHELL,  G.  G. 
MITCHELL,  REUBEN. 
MORGENEIER,  ROBERT. 
MORRELL,  FRANK  A. 
MUDD,  JAMES. 
MULLEN,  JAMES. 

NEWTON,  H.  J. 
NICOL,  ALEXANDER. 
NOTMAN,  WILLIAM. 

O'NEIL,  HUGH. 
OURDAN,  J.  P. 

PEARSALL,  ALVA. 
PETERSON,  CONRAD. 
PFEIFFER,  OSKAR. 
PHILBURN,  A. 
PHILLIP,  T.  C. 


PHILLIPS,  F.  C. 

TA1NE,  N. 

PHILLIPS,  GEO.  BRINTON. 

TALBOT,  ROMAIN. 

PHIPSON,  DR. 

TAYLOR,  J.  TRA1LL. 

PITTMAN,  J.  A.  W. 

T.  H.  C. 

PLATT,  S.  L. 

THOMAS,  FRANK. 

POLARIS,  STELLAR. 

TIPTON,  W.  H. 

POTTER,  J.C. 

TISSANDIER,  G. 

PRICE,  LAKE. 

TOMLINSON,  C. 

PRINGLE,  ANDREW. 

TOPLEY,  W.  J. 

"PYRO." 

TOWLER,  PROF.  J. 

TUNNY,  J.  G. 

RANDALL,  N.  D. 

REEVES,  T.  S. 

VIDAL,  LEON. 

REJLANDER,  O.  G. 

VOGEL,  DR.  H. 

REYNOLDS,  SIR  JOSHUA. 

VON  ARNIM,  BETTINE 

RICHARDSON,  C.  F. 

VON  MOELKE,  CARL. 

ROBINSON,  H.  P. 

VON  MONCKHOVEN,  DR.  D. 

ROCHE,  T.  C. 

ROCHER,  H. 

WALDACK,  CHARLES. 

ROGERS,  S. 

WALLACE,  G.  W. 

ROWELL,  FRANK. 

.  WARNER,  W.  HARDING. 

RUSKIN,  JOHN. 

WATERHOUSE,  MAJOR  T. 

WEBB,  H.  A. 

SALOMON,  ADAM. 

WEBSTER,  E.  Z. 

SAUNDERS,  IRVING. 

WEBSTER,  H.  D. 

SAYLOR,  B.  FRANK. 

WEBSTER,  I.  B. 

SCHNAUS,  DR.  J. 

WELLER,  L.  A. 

SCHREIBER,  G. 

WELLS,  F.  M. 

SCHWIER,  K. 

WELLS,  S.  P. 

SCOTFORD,  J.  H. 

WERGE,  J. 

SEAVEY,  L.  W. 

WHITNEY,  E.  T. 

SELLACK,  SHULTZ. 

WILKINSON,  W.  T. 

SELLSTEDT,  S.  G. 

WILLIAMS,  W.  CLEMENT. 

SHERMAN,  W.  H. 

WILLIS,  GEORGE. 

SHOEMAKER,  W.  L. 

WILLIS,  JR.  ,W. 

SIMPSON,  G  WHARTON. 

WILSON,  EDWARD  L. 

SIMSON,  A. 

WILSON,  G.  W. 

SINGHI,  WELL  G. 

WILSON,  W. 

SLINGSBY,R. 

WINTER,  J.  A. 

SMITH,  GEORGE. 

WOLOWSKI,  J.  K. 

SOUTHWORTH,  A.  S. 

WORTLEY,  COL.  STUART. 

SPENCER,  F.  M. 

STARR,  J.  H. 

YORK,  F. 

STEBBING,  PROF.  E. 

YOUNG,  J.  S. 

STIFF,  C.  J. 

STODDARD,  S.  R. 

ZENTMAYER,  JOSEPH. 

SWAN,  J.  W. 

ZIMMERMAN,  C.  A. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PHOTOTYPES. 

PAGE 

Portrait  of  the  Author, , Frontispiece 

Portraits  of  Miss  Adelaide  Detchon  (eleven),  facing, 76 


PHOTO-ENGRAVINGS  AND  WOOD-CUTS. 


Line  Points, 25 

Diminution, 26,  35 

Perspective, 27 

Point  of  Sight, 27,  28,  29 

Lines  of  the  Face, 30,  31 

Aerial  Perspective, 36 

Marine  View,  by  Willem  Van  de  Velde, .     36 

Varieties  of  Lines, 40 

Angular  Composition,  .     .     42,  43,  44,  45,  46 

The  Flight  of  ^Eneas, 42 

Mignard's  Daughter,  by  Pierre  Mignard,  43 
The  Harvest  Wagon,  by  Philipp  Wouwer- 

mann, 44 

Master  Lambton,  by  Sir  Thomas  Lawrence,  45 
Examples  of  Angular  Composition  (six),  46 
Pyramidal  Composition,  48,  49,  50,  51,  52,  53 
The  Expulsion  of  Hagar,  by  G.  Flink,  .  48 
Family  Devotion,  by  Jean  Baptiste  Greuze,  49 
The  Empty  Jug,  by  A.  Van  Ostade,  .  .  50 
A  Surgical  Operation,  by  Adrian  Brouwer,  51 


PAGE 

Studio  of  Adrian  Van  Ostade,    ....  52 

The  Goat  and  the  Faun, 52 

Examples     of     Pyramidal     Composition 

(six), 53 

Circular  Composition, 56 

Drawing,  by  Raphael, 56 

The  Soldier  and  the  Laughing  Girl,  by  J. 

Van  der  Meer, 60 

Study  in  Light  and  Shade, 60 

Portrait  of  Rembrandt,  by  Himself,    .     .  68 
Orpin,  the  Parish  Clerk, by  Thomas  Gains- 
borough,        69 

Study  in  Lighting, 69 

The    Syndic   of  the    Cloth-Mongers,   by 

Rembrandt, 70 

Rembrandt  Lighting, 70 

The  Grand  Parade, 74 

Study  in  Lines  and  Composition,    ...  74 

The  Portrait  Camera, 78 

The  View  Camera, 78 


XIV 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


The  '76  Stereoscopic  Camera,  ....  79 

Application  of  the  Diaphragm,     ...  87 

The  Tanks  for  the  Dark-room,      ...  90 

Interior  of  the  Dark-room,       ....  91 

Ventilation  of  the  Dark-room,      ...  92 

Collodionizing  the  Plate, 112 

Development  of  the  Image,      .      .      .     .  113 

Retouching  Machine  Work,      .     .      .     .  152 
Glass  Studio  Construction,  155, 156,  161, 

162,  164,  165,  166 

The  Curved  Glass  Studio, 157 

Curtains  for  the  Studio, 159 

Interior  of  the  Glass  Studio,     ....  160 

Awning-frame  for  the  Skylight,     .      .      .  163 

Section  of  a  Skylight, 164 

Elevation  of  a  Skylight, 165 

Details  of  Glass  Studio  Construction,     .  166 

Hull's  Background  Frame, 176 

Liesegang's  Background  Wagon,  .     .     .  176 

The  Printing-room, 189 

Centennial  Printing-room, 190 

Young's  Winter  Printing-room,     .      .      .  191 

Sensitizing  the  Paper, 197 

Clips  for  Suspending  Paper,      .      .      .      .  198 

Drying-room  for  Paper, 198 

The  Fuming-box, 199 

Drying-rack  for  Prints, 208 

A  Printer's  Washing-room, 208 

Stereoscopic  Negative  Guide,  ....  209 

Frame  for  Printing  on  Wood,  .      .     .     .  215 

Waymouth's  Vignette  Paper,    ....  230 

Singhi's  Vignette  Attachment, ....  238 

Robinson's  Print  Trimmers,     ....  230 

View  Included  by  any  Lens,    ....  243 
American  Optical  Company's  Dry-plate 

Apparatus, 243 

On  the  Shores  of  the  River  Neuse,  by 

Jan  Van  Goyen, 255 


Model  Landscape  View, 255 

The  Ancient  Out-door  Worker,     .     .      .  262 

The  Modern  Out-door  Worker,     .     .      .  262 

Hot-water  Cabinet  for  Emulsion  Work,  264 

Apparatus  for  Boiling  Emulsion,  .     .      .  265 

Apparatus  for  Mixing  Emulsion,  .      .     .  266 

Apparatus  for  Dividing  Emulsion,     .     .  267 

Apparatus  for  Breaking  Emulsion,     .      .  268 

Apparatus  for  Cooling  Emulsion, .      .     .  268 

Apparatus  for  Filtering  Emulsion,      .  268,  269 

Apparatus  for  Drying  Emulsion  Plates,  .  272 

Drying-cupboard  for  Emulsion,     .     .      .  273 

Apparatus  for  Emulsion  Developer,  .      .  280 

Carbutt's  Developing  Cruet,      ....  284 
American  Optical  Company's  Dry-plate 

Changing-box, 294,295 

Eastman's  Lamp  for  Emulsion  Work,     .  294 
American    Optical    Company's    Double 

Emulsion  Holder, 297 

Apparatus  for  Enlarging  Card  Negatives,  305 
Apparatus    for    Enlarging   by    Artificial 

Light, .'     .     .  308,  309 

Platt's  Apparatus  for  Tracing   Enlarge- 
ments,     309 

Apparatus  for  Making  Lantern  Slides,    .  310 
Apparatus  for  Drying  Albumen   Trans- 
parencies,   313 

Apparatus  for  Reversing  the  Negative,  .  316 

Apparatus  for  Filtering  Gelatin,    .      .     .  322 

Drying-box  for  Phototype  Plates,       .     .  323 

Drying-cupboard  for  Phototype  Plates,  .  323 

Drying-oven  for  Phototype  Plates,     .      .  326 

Washing-tank  for  Phototype  Plates,  .     .  327 
Drying-box     for     Varnished     Phototype 

Plates, 331 

Apparatus  for  Making  Collodion  Trans- 
fers,   334 

Cylinder  for  Converting  Silver  Chloride,  341 


CONTENTS. 


Treatment  of  the  Subject, 19 

The  Needful  Apparatus, 77 

The  Objective  or  Lens, 81 

The  Dark-Room, 89 

Preparation  of  the  Glass, 93 

Chemicals  and  Solutions, 95 

The  Manipulations, 112 

Manipulatory  Miseries, 116 

Retouching  the  Negative, 147 

The  Glass  Studio, 154 

Accessories  and  Light, 169 

Managing  the  Model, .  183 

Printing  on  Albumen  Paper, 189 

Printing  on  Plain  Paper, 211 

General  Remarks  on  Printing, 213 

Printing  on  Various  Surfaces,      ....           ;     .  214 

Printing  Perplexities, 217 

Art  in  Printing, 226 

Mounting  and  Finishing, 234 

Photography  Outside, 240 

Bromo-Gelatin  Emulsion  Work, .  261 

Vogel's  Collodion  Emulsion, 298 

Enlargements  and  Lantern  Slides, 301 

Phototypes,  Platinotypes,  and  Collodion  Transfers, 316 

Wastes  and  their  Worth, 339 

Metrical  Measuring, 342 

Concluding  Confab, 344 

317 


WILSON'S  PHOTOGRAPHICS. 


LESSON    A. 

T  R  B  A  T  M  K  N  T     OF     THE     S  U  B  J  E  C  T. 

1.  THE  one  thing  which  the  photographer  needs  most  to  consider  with 
greatest  care,  is  the  treatment  of  the  subject  which  comes  before  him. 
This  he  cannot  always  select;  and  he  has  hut  little  time,  as  a  usual  thing,  to 
study  it,  and  to  decide  which  is  the  better  way  to  treat  it.  The  chemicals 
are  all  right,  and  are  sure  not  to  disappoint  him.  Of  his  manipulatory 
success  he  is  certain.  The  camera  is  at  his  service,  but  needs  handling 
with  care.  The  arrangement  of  the  subject,  the  introduction  of  back- 
ground and  accessories,  the  management  of  the  light  and  shade  as  well, 
the  harmonizing  of  the  whole  so  as  to  produce  the  best  pictorial  effect, 
are  the  things  most  apt  to  puzzle  and  even  baffle  him.  Let  us  then  con- 
sider this  part  of  our  subject  first. 

1.  Again,  whether  the  photographer  can  be  called  an  artist  or  not,  to  obtain  the  highest 
success  he  must  have  something  of  the  education  and  feeling  of  an  artist.  He  must  know 
what  is  beautiful  when  he  sees  it,  and  he  must  understand  in  what  true  beauty  and  grace  in 
the  human  figure  consist.  I  have  seen  many  photographs  with  many  capital  points  about 
them — good  light  and  shade  and  general  arrangement,  the  face  well  done,  and  the  drapery 
rather  good;  but,  looking  under  that  drapery,  as  it  were,  it  was  quite  impossible  to  judge 
whether  a  human  being  with  limbs  existed  or  not.  The  artist,  whether  painter  or  sculptor, 
more  especially  the  latter,  would  not  tolerate  this,  and  the  photographer  should  remem'ber 
that  the  form  of  the  human  figure  should  be  seen  to  exist  within  the  drapery,  giving  the 
picture  vitality  and  character.  Any  photographer  may,  by  happy  chance,  occasionally 
produce  a  good  picture,  but  chance  will  not  enable  him  oft  to  repeat  it.  I  have  sometimes 
conceived  a  picture,  for  the  means  to  embody  which  I  have  had  to  wait  for  years  ;  but  as 
I  could  see  my  picture  in  my  mind,  I  knew  at  once  when  the  possible  or  suitable  model 
for  it  was  accessible  to  me,  and  so  seized  the  opportunity,  and  got  what  I  wanted. — 
0.  G.  REJLANDEK. 

2  (17) 


18  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

2.  There  is  no  cause  for  despair,  no  reason  for  faltering  in  this  deli 
cate  and  difficult  portion  of  our  art's  work.     We  may  learn  to  "produce 
beauty  by  rule."     Before  photography  was  born,  art  was.     It  was  agreed 
by  its  masters  that  it  should  be  governed  by  certain  laws  or  principles, 
which  were  to  hold  good  in  all  its  departments  arid  in  all  their  phases. 
Poetry,  music,  painting,  sculpture,  architecture,  dancing,  all  fell  into  line, 
and  accepted  these  principles  at  once,  in  the  production  of  the  delights 
which  everlastingly  come  to  us  from  them. 

3.  Young  photography,  therefore,  if  it  would  take  its  place  among  the 
arts,  must  willingly  bury  its  indifference,  and  come  into  the  procession 
under  the  rules  which  govern  its  members,  or  as  many  of  them  as  apply 
to  it.     What  these  rules  are,  it  will  be  the  purpose  of  the  paragraphs 
which  follow  to  explain  and  illustrate. 

The  department  of  portraiture  will  be  given  the  first  attention,  for  what 

2.  For  my  own  part,  I  lose  sight  of  considerations  as  to  the  mechanical  appliances,  except 
go  far  as  they  require  to  be  accommodated  to  the  necessities  of  the  picture.     The  rough 
instrument  ceases  to  exist  for  me,  absorbed  as  I  am  by  the  idea  of  reproducing  my  ideal. 
"Where  there  is  a  will  there  is  a  way.     In  photography,  as  in  art,  when  the  sentiment  is 
energetic,  it  can  never  be  sterile. — ADAM  SALOMON. 

In  learning  the  rules  for  composition,  as  in  all  other  departments  of  art,  the  artist  must 
study  nature  to  find  his  fundamental  principles,  and  in  doing  so,  he  will  learn,  that  in 
accordance  to  this  law  of  unity  of  the  mind,  but  one  feeling  or  sentiment  is  directly  and 
decidedly  addressed  by  any  one  production  of  nature.  Flowers  having  the  strongest 
perfume,  like  the  orange,  jasmine,  and  lilac,  are  either  white,  or  most  delicately  tinted. 
In  the  charms  displayed  by  the  gorgeous  lilies  and  tulips,  the  eye  alone  is  gratified. 
Brilliant  birds  are  never  great  singers.  People  who  are  regularly  beautiful  are  not  gifted 
with  strong  mental  capacity  ;  for,  according  to  the  laws  of  harmony,  strength  of  character 
is  too  decidedly  marked  in  the  physical  development,  to  admit  of  the  delicacy  that  is 
essential  to  regular  beauty.  We  find  every  degree  of  strength  and  beauty,  every  variety  of 
element,  and  every  possible  variety  of  combination  in  the  human  form  and  character ;  and, 
according  to  the  law  of  harmony  that  pervades  life,  we  also  find  that  the  intermediate 
combination,  that  serves  to  unite  and  harmonize  the  two  extremes,  partaking  alike  of  the 
character  of  both,  is  never  wanting. — M.  A.  DWIGHT. 

3.  There  has  always  been  much  declamation  about  the  fault-finding  tendency  in  our  cus- 
tomers, but  consider  where  we  would  stand  to-day  if  nobody  had  ever  found  fault  with  our 
work.     Some  of  our  patrons  possibly  know  nearly  as  much  about  good  effects  as  the  best  of 
us ;  at  any  rate,  by  trying  to  see  what,  and  as  they  see,  we  shall  more  fully  understand  the 
subject  by  getting  it  in  a  new  aspect. 

A  too  much  neglected  means  of  advancement  is  here.  The  aim  should  be  not  solely  to 
please,  but  to  please  with  the  best  work.  It  can  be  depended  on  to  win  in  the  end.  In  fact, 
every  one  now  knows  something  about  pictures,  so  no  one's  opinion  should  be  entirely 
ignored.  Good  chromos,  good  autotypes,  good  engravings,  good  paintings,  good  photo- 


TREATMENT    OF    THE    SUBJECT.  19 

applies  to  it  will  also  be  of  service  in  the  management  of  subjects  of  all 


4.  The  reproduction  of  the  human  body,  so  to  speak,  is  the  most  ex* 
alted  reach  of  our  art.     Man  is  made  by  God  "  after  His  own  image." 
All  the  other  arts  imitate  man  in  their  creations.     Poetry  sings  of  his 
loves  and  passions ;  music  mimics  his  songs  of  praise,  and  repeats  his 
woful  wails;  the  painter  never  tires  of  delineating  his  figure,  of  repre- 
senting his  life,  or  depicting  his  beauties;  sculpture  immortalizes  him; 
the  architect  constructs  his  grand  creations  in  form  after  the  human  figure; 
and  dancing  moulds  his  graces  into  the  poetry  of  motion,  thus  creating 
and  completing  a  ring  of  faithful  delineators  of  human  splendors,  all 
bound  by  the  principles  of  art.     They  express  for  humanity  its  ideas ; 
they  render  its  sentiments ;  they  tell  its  stories ;  they  imitate  it  in  all  its 
phases,  for  the  enjoyment  of  its  members. 

5.  Photography  is  born,  and,  like  a  Joseph  among  his  brethren,  asserts 
itself,  and  demands  a  place.     Its  youthful  hand  is  laid  upon  the  glorious 
circle,  and  admittance  asked.     It  is  denied,  and  effort  made  by  its  envious 
kindred  to  hide  it  in  a  pit,  and  to  utterly  destroy  it.     Why  ?     It  does  not 
comply  with  the  rules.     Yea,  there  is  a  fear  that  it  will  itself  want  to  rule 
over  all,  and  great  jealousy  arises  lest  it  should  out-run  them,  and  destroy 

graphs,  can  be  had  any  where  ;  they  are  educating  the  million,  and  it  remains  for  each  caterer 
to  the  public  to  study  with  open  eye,  brain,  and  heart,  lest  he  shortly  be  found  not  in  advance 
of,  but  behind,  the  public  taste. — "W.  J.  BAKER. 

4.  The  utmost  capacity  of  photography  can  only  be  reached  when,  with  complete  control 
of  his  materials,  the  operator  is  possessed  of  a  cultivated  mind,  is  master  of  the  principles  which 
govern  art,  and  deeply  imbued  with  its  spirit.     Mere  taste  is  not  sufficient;  he  must  have 
thought,  too,  and  thought  is  the  result  of  culture.     Like  the  architect,  sculptor,  or  painter, 
he  ought  to  be  a  man  of  observation,  and  able  to  segregate  the  essential  idea  from  the  un- 
necessary rubbish  which  surrounds  it.     Drawing,  modelling,  or  painting  are  the  means  by 
which  poetic  ideas  are  unfolded  in  plastic  art ;  in  photography,  the  chemical  action  of  some 
of  the  rays  of  light  upon  a  sensitized  film  or  medium  stands  for  two  of  these,  and  when, 
within  their  proper  sphere,  they  are  used  by  corresponding  intelligence,  bear  corresponding 
fruits.     Their  results  ought  to  be  preferred  to  thoughtless  skill,  for  they  give  better  satisfac- 
tion.— S.  G.  SELLSTEDT. 

5.  Photographers,  in  your  hands  is  power.    The  power  of  the  wonder- world  of  art.     Do  not 
underrate  it.     But  whether  it  be  great  or  little  is  of  small  account.     It  certainly  is  real,  and, 
as  real,  the  true  artist  will  have  it  what  it  ought  to  be.     He  will  teach  all  whom  he  can  reach 
that  in  the  perfect  truth  alone  is  the  perfect  beauty  ;  that  every  thing  and  every  person  who 
has  a  right  to  be  at  all  has  a  beauty  of  its  own  ;  that  his  own  aim  is  simply  to  discover  and 
most  perfectly  to  render  the  highest,  exactest,  and  completest  life  of  each  ;  and  that,  in  a 
word,  in  the  highest  character  is  the  perfect  art. — REV.  FREDERICK  FROTHINQHAM. 


20  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

their  harmony  and  peace.  But  this  must  not  be  so.  It  is  not  so.  For, 
after  ignoring  the  principles  of  art  for  the  first  thirty  years  of  its  life,  pho- 
tography, awakened  out  of  sleep,  ceased  its  obstreperous  opposition,  and, 
rubbing  its  eyes,  began  to  study,  to  practise,  and  to  improve. 

6.  As  a  result,  the  productions  of  photography  ten  years  ago  are  not 
worthy  to  be  compared  with  those  of  to-day  in  an  art  sense.     Yet  there 
is  still  more  room  for  progress  and  improvement  in  this  noble  direction 
than  in  any  other,  and  its  importance  cannot  be  too  earnestly  urged. 
"What  photographers  need  for  themselves  is  culture — education  in  the  prin- 
ciples of  art  so  far  as  they  are  applicable  to  photography.     What  they 
need  to  secure  to  their  patrons  is  a  likeness ;  made  more  beautiful  and 
pleasurable,  as  it  can  be,  by  the  application  of  these  principles  in  its  pro- 
duction from  beginning  to  end. 

7.  As  in  grammar,  certain  rules  regulate  the  parts  of  speech  which 
make  up  our  language — as  in  authorship,  the  rules  of  composition  govern 
the  forms  of  the  sentences  which  immortalize  the  author,  so  in  photog- 
raphy must  and  do  the  rules  of  form,  composition,  light  and  shade,  govern 
the  production  of  the  best  pictures.     It  behooves  the  photographer,  there- 
fore, to  study  and  practise  these  rules ;  to  educate  the  mind  and  the  eye,  and 

6.  The  great  want  in  the  present  position  of  photography,  is  a  more  extended  knowledge 
of  art  amongst  photographers.     "Were  this  want  supplied,  there  would  soon  he  an  increased 
taste  and   refinement  in  photographic  productions.     Articles   have   heen  written  on  this 
subject,  hut  often  in  a  style  too  philosophical  and  dreamy,  so  that  the  simple  soul  who  wants 
to  know  what  he  should   do  to  improve,  and   how  to  do  it,  is  utterly  bewildered  and 
confused. — JAMES  MUDD. 

There  are  general  and  specific  principles  in  art,  and  the  better  we  comprehend  them,  the 
more  readily  do  we  see  the  intention  of  the  artist  in  his  pictures.  Hence,  it  is  like  learning 
ji  strange  language ;  we  must  first  begin  with  the  sounds  of  the  letters  and  words  before  we 
can  communicate  in  sentences.  Thus  in  art,  if  we  understand  and  have  acquired  the  faculty 
of  artistic  sight,  our  gratification  is  immeasurably  increased  by  being  able  to  appreciate 
what  we  see. — L.  G.  BIGELOW. 

7.  I  consider  it  requisite  that  a  professional  portraitist  should  previously  undergo  a  similar 
course  of  training  to  that  which  an  artist,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  would  do.     A  man 
is  not  an  artist  because  he  possesses  a  camera  and  lens.     Incapacity  will  inevitably  be  made 
manifest  in  results — in  the  miserable  productions,  in  imitation  of  humanity,  which  have 
been  scattered  broadcast  over  town  and  country,  plentiful  as  blackberries  in  the  autumn. 
But  a  student  devoted  to  art,  bringing  to  bear  upon  photography  the  superior  taste  and 
judgment  to  be  only  acquired  by  years  of  ardent  study  in  drawing  and  painting,  will  not 
fail,  in  time,  to  rank  with  the  best  men  and  most  capable  artists  in  the  profession.     These, 
I  have  no  doubt,  have  each  gone  through  such  a  course  of  training  in  art  as  I  have  referred 
to,  before  entering  the  domain  of  photography. — R.  SLINGSBY. 


TKEATMENT    OF    THE    SUBJECT.  21 

to  train  the  hand  to  conform  unto  them.  Carry  into  practice  what  you 
see,  what  you  imagine,  what  you  invent,  and  apply  your  genius  and  your 
skill  to  your  work. 

8.  Some  one  has  said  that  "  G-enius  plays  and  talent  labors;"  that  is 
truly  so,  but  it  is  only  the  genius  that  plays  by  rule ;  and  the  truly  talented 
labor  with  principles  constraining  every  action.     The  dancer  in  his  wildest 
enthusiasm,  is  swayed  by  the  silent  influence  of  time,  and  the  mightiest 
sledge  is  swung  to  the  reverberations  of  the  anvil  music,  or  to  those  of 
the  shaping  mass  beneath  it.     Nature  herself,  fickle  as  she  seems,  submits 
to  laws  as  eloquent  as  her  own  fascinations. 

9.  When  a  person  appears  before  a  photographer  for  a  portrait,  if  his 
mind  is  fraught  with  the  culture  which  he  needs,  it  will  flow  from  him  in 
generous  fulness,  like  a'  spring,  as  if  by  inspiration,  just  when  he  requires 
it,  and  of  the  kind  he  requires.     There  is  something  wonderful  about 
this,  but  it  is  true.     As  soon  as  the  subject  is  presented,  the  artist  mind, 
if  trained,  will  begin  to  work  and  to  simmer,  and  his  knowledge  to  bubble 
up  to  his  aid.     The  pleasure  he  feels  in  the  work,  and  that  which  he  hopes 
to  give  to  his  patrons,  gives  impulse  to  the  power  within  him.    What  exists 
in  his  model  calls  up  other  suggestions,  and  he  goes  at  the  posing  ana 
lighting  with'  a  will  and  a  conscious  strength  which  surprises  him.     To 
produce  the  conceptions  which  arise  from  his  mental  power  becomes  his 
passion.     How  wildly  he  would  work,  did  he  not  permit  himself  to  be 
swayed  by  the  rules  of  art;  and  as  poetry  without  measure,  as  music  with- 

8.  We  need  to  cultivate  the  sentiment  of  the  beautiful,  a  feeling  and  taste  for  art,  to  read 
the  book  of  nature  in  all  its  phases  and  endless  variety.     These  are  the  much-neglected 
subjects  that  should  be  more  urged  and  impressed  upon  the  minds  of  photographers.     These 
are  the  subjects  that  elevate,  and  inspire  an  ambition  to  cultivate  the  taste  and  a  love  of  the 
beautiful;    they   furnish   the    mental   and   moral   aliment  that   nerves    our    energies,   and 
embraces  the  whole  philosophy  and  secret  of  success  ;  and  as  nothing  succeeds  like  success, 
why  is  it  that  so  few  climb  their  Parnassus  by  this  enchanted  but  more  difficult  road? — 
D.  H.  ANDERSON. 

9.  Whether  the  artist  mean  it  or  not,  in  every  face  he  photographs  he  tells  a  story.     If  it 
be  the  face  of  an  infant  or  grown  child,  there  is  the  sweetest  of  all  stories — the  story  of 
innocence  and  strangely  bound-up  probabilities  ;  if  of  a  fully  developed  youth,  there  is  the 
story  of  school-battle,  with  life  ahead  and  gray  hairs  and  honor  in  the  distance;  or  the 
picture  may  be  a  register  of  school  feebleness  and  an  evident  life  of  commonplace  events  in 
the  future.     If  we  are  photographing  those  who  are  wearing  on  into  the  afternoon  of  life, 
then  it  is  when  the  story  may  be  of  most  interest,     The  wear  and  tear  of  life,  with  all  the 
turmoil  of  passion,  has  now  gained   the  control,  and   every  line  and  look   has   taken  its 
impress  from  the  long  line  of  past  action. — JOHN  BEATTIE. 


22  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

out  time,  so  his  results  would  appear  when  measured  by  the  laws  of  the 
beautiful. 

10.  No  more  then  about  the  importance  of  applying  art  principles  to 
the  practice  of  photography.     We  admit  that,  and  proceed  to  the  study 
of  those  principles  as  laid  down  by  the  "old  masters,"  who  themselves 
submitted  to  them  in  the  creation  of  the  glorious  works  which  have  made 
them  immortal.     And  let  the  words  of  Goethe  be  our  watchwords :  "  The 
highest  demand  that  can  be  made  of  an  artist  is  this  :  that  he  shall  hold 
to  nature — study  her,  imitate  her ;  that  he  shall  produce  something  resem- 
bling her  manifestations." 

11.  That  you  may  be  able  to  discern  the  beauty  and  truth  of  nature, 
and  apply  the  same  in  your  every-day  practice  of  photography,  is  the 
purpose,  then,  of  the  feeble  instruction  which  follows.     It  is  the  partial 
outgrowth,  of  years  of  delightful  reading  and  study  and  practice  amid  the 
works  of  the  immortal  ones,  at  home  and  abroad,  helped  by  the  authorities 
who  advocate  their  principles. 

10.  First,  I  would  advise  you  to  study  nature ;  study  it  constantly,  closely,  and  patiently. 
Never  suppose  that  you  are  perfectly  familiar  with  it ;  the  more  you  study  it  the  more  it 
will  reveal  itself  and  its  true  character  :  many  look  and  do  not  see. 

Study  works  of  art :  paintings,  engravings,  sculpture,  and  photography,  all  demand  careful 
study ;  and  when  you  examine  a  picture,  do  not  be  content  to  pronounce  mentally  even  a 
hasty  judgment  upon  it,  saying,  "Oh,  how  beautiful  I"  or  the  reverse,  but  take  time.  It  will 
well  repay  you  to  study  out  what  are  its  qualities  first,  lastly  its  defects ;  try  every  line :  now  this 
deep  shade,  this  high-light,  this  mass  of  half-tone  ;  find  out  if  you  can  the  purpose  or  intention 
of  the  artist  in  every  particular,  and  if  you  have  the  privileged  companionship  of  a  more 
advanced  student  than  yourself,  exchange  your  opinions  freely ;  the  advantage  of  doing  so 
is  evident.  If  your  home  is  in  a  large  city,  be  grateful  for  the  opportunities  its  galleries  and 
art  repositories  afford  you  for  study.  If  not  so  favorably  situated,  take  every  proper  oppor- 
tunity of  seeing  any  private  collections  in  the  neighborhood,  or  of  being  introduced  to  their 
owners.  Generally  they  are  ready  to  receive  kindly  those  who  take  like  pleasure  with  them- 
selves in  studying  works  of  art.  Should  no  such  opportunity  be  available,  do  not  starve 
while  so  much  art  is  to  be  met  with  in  so  many  of  the  wood-cut  illustrations  of  the  present 
day  ;  first-rate  art,  too,  let  me  tell  you — fit  to  inspire  — WILLIAM  NOTMAN. 

11.  It  is  an  improvement  in  the  right  direction,  and  too  much  praise  cannot  be  given  to 
our  photographic  journals  and  the  writers  of  books  on  art  principles  who  have  made  such  a 
persistent  effort  to  impress  upon  photographers  in  general  the  necessity  of  an  art  cultivation 
in  lighting  and  posing.     Too  much   cannot  be  written  upon  this  point,  nor  can  a  photog- 
rapher study  it  too  much,  for  here  is  the  touchstone  to  rank  photography  among  the  fine  arts. 
And  not  till  photographers  as  a  class  have  become  art  students,  and  their  art  knowledge  is 
apparent  in  every  picture  they  make,  can  we  hope  to  reach  that  point.     It  is  true  that  por- 
trait photography  as  now  conducted  has  a  certain  business  aspect  attached  to  it  that  tends  to 
degrade  it  as  an  art.     This  should  be  kept  in  the  background,  and  the  artistic  effect  and  ap- 


TKEATMENT    OF    THE    SUBJECT.  23 

12.  As  a  corner-stone  to  the  structure,  placed  with  the  greatest  con- 
sideration, correctness  should  stand  pre-eminent.    Should  the  eye  be  allowed 
to  fall  into  a  loose,  imperfect  habit  of  study,  it  will  be  found  difficult  to 
overcome  it  afterwards,  when  you  see  the  folly  of  it.     The  first  step  then 
towards  the  education  of  the  eye,  is  to  learn  to  measure  the  distances  be- 
tween objects.     Next,  take  in  accurately  the  forms  of  the  lines  which 
bound  these  spaces,  and  the  shapes  which  are  contained  or  excluded  by 
such  lines.     This  gives  the  eye  something  tangible  to  work  upon.     Take 
a  pencil  or  a  brush  and  make  a  series  of  dots.     Then  draw  lines  from 
one  to  another.     Imitate  them  as  near  as  you  can,  over  and  over  again, 
comparing  their  correctness  with  the  original.      Enlarge  upon  this  by 
making  and  imitating  other  forms. 

13.  Every  figure  or  form  holds  within  it,  more  or  less,  portions  of  a 
triangle,  square,  or  circle.     In  order,  therefore,  to  fit  the  eye  for  the  pur- 
pose of  seeing  such  qualities  when  mixed  and  combined  with  more  com- 
plicated figures,  it  must  be  taught  to  imitate  and  comprehend  such  objects 

pearance  of  the  gallery  made  as  prominent  a  feature  and  study  as  possible;  and  as  long  as 
photographs  are  offered  to  the  public  by  the  dozen,  so  long  will  it  have  a  commercial  aspect. 
Then  photographers  as  a  class  are  so  avaricious  ;  the  almighty  dollar  is  what  they  are  seeking, 
and  everything,  art  and  all,  is  sacrificed  upon  its  altar.  So  business  and  photography,  by 
usage,  have  become  very  closely  allied,  and  to  make  the  latter  recognized  among  the  fine  arts 
will  be  a  very  difficult  matter  under  the  present  regime.  But  as  photographers  rise  higher 
in  their  art  knowledge  and  the  application  of  it,  they  will  have  more  pride  in  their  efforts, 
a  more  generous  feeling  towards  each  other  (even  to  their  next  door  neighbor),  and  a  higher 
love  for  their  profession,  for  business  and  its  chosen  god,  the  almighty  dollar,  will  then  have 
some  respect  for  the  photographic  art,  and  kneel  to  its  dictation. — ALVA  PEARSALL. 

12.  One  of  the  very  best  methods  of  self-tuition  in  photography  is  the  cultivation  of  the 
habit  of  comparison.     If  the  photographer  is  really  honest  and  earnest  in  his  desires  to 
improve  (and  by  improvement  I  mean  the  improvement  of  his  finances  as  well  as  of  his 
work,  for  the  one  is  sure  to  follow  the  other),  he  will  fall  into  this  habit  involuntarily,  and 
blessed  is  he  if  he  does.     He  will  not  settle  into  a  rut,  and  say  to  himself,  "Well,  things  are 
going  along  smoothly,  and  I  will  let  them  alone;"  but  the  rather,  "I  am  going  to  lift 
myself  out  of  this  and  see  what  is  going  on  outside,  even  if  it  does  go  rough  for  awhile." 

He  will,  when  he  picks  up  examples  of  the  work  of  others,  fall  into  the  good  plan  of 
mentally  placing  it  alongside  his  own,  and  then  going  through  a  course  of  catechism, 
honestly  questioning  and  honestly  answering  himself.  And  the  result  will  be,  be  the 
examination  in  favor  of  his  own  work  or  not,  that  he  will  learn  something  which  will  prove 
profitable  to  him. — OLD  ARGENTTTM. 

13.  In  reference  to  the  requirements  of  art,  Goethe  has  written  on  this  background  of  the 
past,  "That  the  highest  demand  that  can  be  made  of  an  artist  is  this,  that  he  shall  hold  to 
nature,  study  her,  imitate  her ;  that  he  shall  produce  something  resembling  her  manifesta- 
tions.    How  great,  nay,  immense,  this  requirement  is,  we  do  not  often  consider  ;  and  even 


24  WILSON'S   PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

in  their  simple  forms.  Therefore,  select  some  of  the  objects  used  in 
your  work  having  these  forms  or  partly  so,  and  draw  from  them.  Thus 
your  eye  will  become  accustomed  to  them,  and  gradually  you  will  fall 
into  the  habit  of  mentally  measuring  the  correctness  of  the  shapes  con- 
stantly presented  to  your  eyes,  and  you  will  have  received  excellent 
lessons  in  the  grand  principles  of  eye  education,  measurement,  and  form. 

14.  After  these    come  the  vastly  important  lessons  of  perspective,  so 
useful  in  the  practice  of  photography.     Clothed  with  its  geometrical  and 
mathematical  intricacies,  perspective  is  a  bugbear  which  "  hoodlums " 
many  a  would-be  art  student.     The  effort  will  be  made  here  to  render 
it  understandable  and  of  service.     The  Latin  derivation  is  per,  through, 
and  specto,  to  view ;  and  the  drawing  in  perspective,  may  be  denned  as 
the  art  of  representing  various  objects  subject  to  those  laws  which  regu- 
late their  appearance  in  nature. 

15.  As  all  forms  are  made  up  of  lines,  more  or  less  intricate,  their 
study  should  engage  us  now.     All  of  them  are  subject  to  variations  in 
their  appearance  except  two — a  horizontal  line  and  a  perpendicular  o>ne. 
Lines  are  also  more  or  less  diminished  in  their  length  as  they  depart 

the  true  artist  succeeds  through  instinct  and  taste,  through  practice  and  trial,  in  approaching 
the  outward  beautiful  side  of  objects,  in  choosing  the  best  out  of  the  good  before  him,  and  at 
last  learns  how  to  produce  an  agreeable  appearance  ;  how  much  more  rarely  does  it  occur,  espe- 
cially in  these  later  times,  that  the  artist  is  able  to  penetrate  into  the  depths  of  his  own  soul,  as 
well  as  to  take  the  measure  of  outward  objects;  and  thus,  instead  of  producing  works  of  a 
naerely  superficial  effect,  emulate  nature  herself,  and  create  a  spiritually  organic  whole,  giv- 
ing to  his  work  an  import  and  a  form  that  make  it  seem  at  once  natural  and  supernatural.'' 
This  may  not  all  be  within  the  grasp  of  the  student  of  photography,  because  he  dfetus 
more  with  material  things,  and  has  not  the  latitude  for  idealizing  that  the  painter  has  ;  but 
that  photography  is  susceptible  of  embodying  all  the  higher  elements  of  true  art,  the  wo.-ks  of 
to-day,  which  express  so  much  of  poetry  and  sentiment,  abundantly  testify. — G.  W,  WALLACE. 

14.  The  merit  of  our  higher  classes  of  work  consists  in  the  adaptation  of  recognized  rules 
of  art  to  the  end  in  view.     Study  of  perspective,  the  effects  of  light  and  shade,  of  the  graceful 
disposition  of  lines,  and  of  the  judicious  aid  of  simple  accessories,  will  do  more  to  enhance  the 
value  of  one's  work  than  the  collection  of  all  the  receipts  ever  concocted. — JOHN  L.  >£IHON. 

15.  First,  of  course,  comes  the  closest  study  of  nature  in  all  her  moods ;  but,  to  supple- 
ment this,  familiarity  with  the  work  of  her  best  interpreters  is  of  a  certain  advantnge.     I 
have  said  that  the  best  likenesses  in  photography  seem  out  of  keeping;  the  light  is  so  dis- 
tributed upon  them  that  certain  features  are  too  prominent,  others  too  receding.      The 
bridges  of  noses  are  widening,  the  ends  made  bulbous,  and  often  the  neck  is  without  mod- 
elling.    There  are  flat  spaces  and  empty  spaces.     This  is  not  the  case  in  nature.     However- 
little  there  may  be  in  the  head,  there  is  plenty  of  modelling  on  the  outside.     Nature  leaves 
no  blank,  all  is  finely  modelled  and  diversified. — CHARLES  AKKRS. 


TREATMENT    OF    THE    SUBJECT. 


25 


from  the  parallel  of  their  base-line.  Hold  a  pencil  at  its  centre,  by 
thumb  and  finger,  parallel  to  the  eye  ;  now  gradually  twirl  it  around, 
and  it  appears  to  become  shorter  and  shorter,  until  it  is  seemingly  but  a 
spot,  when  it  is  placed  with  the  point  directly  towards  the  eye.  This  is 
called  the  point  of  sight,  which  is  always  upon  a  horizontal  line  and  im- 
mediately opposite  the  eye  of  the  observer.  Turn  it  around  now,  from 
right  to  left,  or  vice  versa,  and  points  without  number  may  be  described 
along  the  entire  line.  These  are  called  accidental  points,  and  vary,  more 
or  less,  as  the  lines  run  at  right  angles  from  the  base-line. 

16.  Lines  also  vary  according  as  they  are  situated  above  or  below  the 
eye  of  the  observer.     To  prove  this,  hold  up  a  piece  of  glass  on  which  a 
series  of  lines  have  been  drawn,  radiating  from   the  centre,  and  look 
through  it  up  a  street  or  along  an  inclosure.     It  will  be  seen  that  those 
lines  which  are  at  right  angles  with  the  base-line,  fall  in  with  and  cover 
many  of  the  lines  so  drawn  upon  the  glass ;  for,  as  they  run  to  the  point 
of  sight,  they  will,  of  necessity,  converge,  since  the  spaces  between  them 
dimmish  as  they  recede  from  the  spectator. 

17.  The  following  will  illustrate  the  above  points.     Let  the  figure  rep- 
resent  a   case  with  folding- 
doors,  placed  immediately  be- 
fore the  eye.  The  sides  appear 

to  rise  and  descend  to  the 
point  of  sight,  A;  also  the 
door,  B,  from  its  being  opened 
at  right  angles  with  the  base- 
1  i7ie ;  while  the  lines  of  the 
door,  c,  appear  to  run  to  the 
accidental  point,  D.  This  point  will  vary  its  situation  according  as  the 

16.  Theory  is  the  great  director  of  experiment,  the  only  interpreter  of  the   works  of 
nature  which  is  never  wrong;  it  is  our  judgment  which  is  sometimes  deceived,  because  we 
are  expecting  results  which  experiment  refuses  to  give ;  we  must  consult  experiment,  and 
vary  the  circumstances  till  we  have  deduced  general  rules,  for  it  alone  can  furnish  us  with 
them;  and  general  rules  direct  us  in  our  inquiries  into  nature  and  the  operations  of  art; 
they  keep  us  from  deceiving  ourselves  and  others,  by  promising  ourselves  results  which  we 
can  never  obtain. — LEONARDO  DA.  VINCI. 

17.  The  photographer  may  further  advance  himself  by  the  study  of  good  hand-work  in 
the  matter  of  composition  or  arrangement  of  his  picture.     I  have  not  much  to  say  upon  so 
profound  a  theme  as  this,  and  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  remark  that  it  is  the  subject  of  all 
others  which  the  student  can  least  afford  to  neglect.     It  is  indeed  of  the  first  importance  in 


FlG.l. 


26 


WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 


FIG.  2. 


Horizon  Lai 


line*. 


door  is  more  or  less  opened,  which  explains  what  are  termed  accidental 
points. 

18.  As  we  depart  from  any  object,  it  diminishes  in  size,  apparently. 
Two  parallel  lines  seem  to  approach  each  other  as  they  recede  from  the 
eye.  This  is  termed  diminution,  and  appears,  to  a  degree,  governed  by 
whether  the  lines  commence  from  a  near  point  or  one  far  removed.  For 
example,  a  coin  or  a  hand  held  near  the  eye  will  intercept  more  than 
when  held  at  arm's  length.  All  objects  diminish  in  an  increased  ratio 
until  removed  to  a  certain  distance,  when  the  diminution  appears  less  vio- 
lent. Witness  the  next  diagram.  Let  the  line  A  represent  the  spectator, 
and  the  line  B  a  line  of  pavement;  the  circular  line  c,  which  cuts  through 

the  visual  rays  as 
they  approach  the 
eye,  will  show  the 
diminished  ratio  as 
the  squares  become 
more  distant,  and, 
as  they  have  to  be  represented  on  a  plane  surface,  their  proportions  will 
be  as  their  diversion  on  D.  Their  appearance  is  represented  by  the  hori- 
zontal lines  in  the  next  figure. 

19:  What  is  termed  violent  perspective  may  also  be  illustrated  by  this 
figure.  When  objects  are  commenced  too  near  the  eye,  they  appear  to 
be  out  of  proportion  with  the  other  objects  in  the  work,  and,  although 

photographic,  as  in  other  portraiture,  how  the  figure  is  placed,  how  the  drapery  is  disposed, 
how  the  head  is  turned,  where  the  hands  shall  rest.  The  least  change  of  action  produces  a 
new  combination,  which  may  he  right  or  wrong,  pleasing  or  harsh.  The  old  definition  of 
beauty  must  be  kept  in  mind  :  variety  in  unity.  It  must  be  done,  but  the  difficulty  is  how 
to  do  it. — CHARLES  AKERS. 

18.  We  want  to  see  the  time  when  poor  pictures  will  be  rejected  by  the  public  as  un- 
worthy of  their  attention.     Now  what  must  we  do  to  accomplish  this  ?    We  must  study  the 
principles  of  high  art,  and  every  time  we  make  a  picture  we  should  endeavor  to  portray  to 
the  best  of  our  ability  the  amount  of  art  knowledge  we  possess  ;  and  let  me  say  here,  possess 
all  you  can,  study  all  the  art  journals  you  can  get,  and  particularly  study  good  pictures.     I 
never  received  so  much  instruction  and  benefit  from  that  one  source  as  while  at  the  Centen- 
nial.    I  had  never  attended  a  photographic  convention,  and  had  no  idea  of  the  good  they 
can  do.     Although  I  was  unable  to  attend  at  the  time  of  the  meeting,  I  was  greatly  bene- 
fited by  studying  the  works  of  our  eminent  city  artists  in  Photographic  Hall. — C.  M.  FRENCH. 

19.  Now  what  has  object-teaching  to  do  with  this  ?  Why  !  when  you  come  to  look  at  your 
sitter  you  should  observe  whether  you  have  a  pale  face,  a  ruddy,  shiny,  or  a  greasy  face,  and 
you  should  recollect  that  the  one  will  absorb  the  light  and  the  other  reflect  it.     So  you  will 


TREATMENT    OF    THE    SUBJECT. 


27 


FIG.  3. 


according  to  rule,  they  appear  false  in  effect  to  the  eye.  To  avoid  this,  a 
point  of  distance  is  chosen  that  will  look  agreeable.  The  farther  this 
point  is  removed  the  more  level  the 
ground  will  appear,  as,  by  this  system  of 
object-teaching,  is  shown  in  Figs.  3  and  4. 
20.  ANGLES. — What  has  been  said 
more  immediately  applies  to  parallel  per- 
spective ;  so  named  from  all  the  lines 
which  intersect  those  running  to  the 
point  of  sight  being  parallel  with  the 
base-line.  When,  however,  a  square 
or  any  cubical  form  is  viewed  at  the 
angle,  the  two  sides  will  not  appear  to 
vanish  in  the  point  of  sight,  but  run  to 
two  points  on  the  horizontal  line,  called 
vanishing-points;  and  this  mode  of 
treating  the  subiect  is  called  angular  perspective.  Now,  these  two  points 
are  always  at  an  equal  distance  from  each  other,  which  is  one-fourth  ot 
a  circle,  therefore,  Pointcf*ifiit  FIG.  4. 

if  one  is  determined 
upon,  the  other  is 
easily  found;  for  as 
one  departs  from  the 
point  of  sight  the 
other  appears  to  ap- 
proach it,  as  one  may  perceive  by  turning  around  a  sheet  of  paper,  or  a 
book,  from  a  situation  where  one  side  is  parallel  with  the  base-line  until 
it  is  viewed  upon  the  angles. 

have  to  study  your  faces  to  know  how  much  light  to  give  in  each  case.  You  want  to  know 
how  to  get  enough  light,  and  n.ot  a  great  deal  of  light,  but  the  right  kind  of  light,  on  the 
subject.  Eemember  that  light  travels  in  straight  lines,  and  that  even  the  atmosphere  will 
drive  it  from  its  course.  That  is  the  reason  why  a  high  skylight  causes  more  diffusion  of 
the  light,  and  gives  softer  results  than  a  low  one. — EDWARD  L.  WILSON 

20.  The  old-fashioned  silhouettes  represented  nothing  but  the  outlines  of  the  picture,  and 
yet  they  were  very  charming.  This  shows  of  how  much  importance  outlines  are.  Their 
influence  is  felt  in  every  picture.  Every  thinking  artist  who  desires  to  reproduce  an  object, 
first  studies  its  outlines.  He  allows  his  eye  to  glide  over  the  lines,  and  tries  to  find  the  beauty 
of  their  curves.  He  follows  the  changes  of  the  stronger  and  the  weaker  ones,  the  longer 
and  the  shorter,  their  windings  and  their  easy  combinations. — DK.  H.  VOQKL. 


28 


WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 


21.  The  cause  of  this  may,  perhaps,  be  more  clearly  explained  by  the 
following:  Suppose  the  circle  to  represent  the  line  of  the  horizon,  which 
is  the  true  representation  of  it  when  viewed  out  at  sea,  or  where  no 
obstructions  intercept  it,  for  then  the  water,  coming  in  contact  with  the 
sky,  presents  a  circular  horizontal  line.  If  a  person,  therefore,  was 
placed  at  D,  and  looking  to  the  point  A,  the  line  c  would  be  parallel  with 

the  base,  being  at  right  angles  with  A,  and  con- 
sequently occupying  one-fourth  of  a  circle ;  but 
if  he  turned  in  the  direction  of  B,  then  A  and  c 
would  become  vanishing-points,  though  still  at 
equal  distances  upon  the  horizontal  line,  and 
would  appear  as  in  Fig.  6.  In  a  panorama,  which 
is  a  circular  canvas  viewed  from  the  centre,  this 
mode  of  measuring  the  various  points  is  found 
to  agree  perfectly  with  the  natural  representation 
of  objects. 

22.  CIRCLES. — If  any  one  takes  a  drinking- 
glass  or  cup  in  his  hand,  with  the  mouth  of  it  towards  him,  and  gradu- 

21.  Photography  is  a  means  to  an  end.     By  its  aid  we  are  enabled  to  secure  representa- 
tions of  realities  visible  to  the  human  eye.     Pictorial  art  in  photography  consists  in  making 
such  representations  artistic  and  pleasing  productions. 

In  what  way  should  the  student  who  wishes  to  excel  in  the  art  commence  his  practice  ?  I 
will  suppose  him  to  have  mastered  the  chemical  and  mechanical  difficulties  connected  with 
photography  through  its  first  stages,  and  that  his  earnest  endeavors  for  the  future  are  to  be 
devoted  in  acquiring  a  perfect  mastery  of  the  various  subjects  to  be  photographed.  A 
knowledge  of  drawing  is,  if  not  essential,  a  most  important  requisite,  proficiency  in  which 
will  enable  him  to  design  a  suitable  arrangement  for  the  sitter  beforehand,  whenever  an 
important  work  may  be  required,  thus  taking  a  load  off  the  mind  when  the  actual  moment 
arrives  ;  such  is  frequently  my  practice  when  wishing  to  produce  a  picture  out  of  the  usual 
style.  A  continued  method  of  noting  in  the  mind  the  beauties  of  nature  and  art  is  valua- 
ble, the  artist  not  allowing  himself  to  pass  quietly  by  any  of  the  fleeting  effects  in  nature, 
or  to  neglect  any  beautiful  pictures  he  may  chance  to  see,  without  arriving  at  a  conclusion 
in  his  own  mind  as  to  what  constituted  the  charms  which  have  arrested  his  attention.  He 
should  learn  to  look  on  nature  as  if  looking  at  a  picture  ;  this  in  time  will  have  its  effect,  if 
persevered  in  by  the  student,  in  aiding  the  first  step  in  art,  which  is  the  proper  cultivation 
of  the  eye.  A  cultivated  eye  Hiid  taste  will  decide  what  forms  to  arrange,  and  also  what 
light  and  shade  to  throw  upon  them.  Practice  alone  can  enable  the  student  to  equal  his 
own  ideas.  It  is  a  great  thing  to  keep  the  judgment  ahead  of  the  practice,  so  that  every 
succeeding  work  may  present  an  improvement  upon  the  last. — K.  SLINGSBY. 

22.  Without  the  eye  being  made  acquainted  with  the  beauties  of  those  who  have  ad- 
vanced the  art  to  its  present  state,  either  progressively,  by  studying  the  best  works,  or  by 


TKEATMENT    OF    THE    SUBJECT.  29 

ally  turns  it  from  him,  carefully  watching  all  the  elliptical  forms  until 

the  brim  becomes  a  straight  line  in  appearance, 

he  will  have  a  correct   idea  of  how  it   is  that 

columns  or   other   circular   objects   assume   an 

oval  shape  at  top  or  bottom,  according  as  they 

are  above  or  below  the  eye.     Or  if  he  holds  the 

cup   with   the    side   downwards  and  turns   the 

mouth  gradually  round  towards  him,  he  will  see 

why  arches  or  circular  gateways  appear  elliptical  in  a  side  view.     It  arises 

from  parts  of  the  circle  being  more  foreshortened  than  other  parts ;  that 

is  to  say,  those  lines  which  come  more  in  the  line  of  the  visual  rays, 

This  can  readily  be  illustrated  with  your  lens-tube. 

23.  The  application  of  these  principles  is  easy  to  every  one  who  knows 
how  to  operate  a  camera.  And  in  applying  them,  remember  that  the 
base  upon  which  all  the  rules  of  true  drawing  are  founded,  is  what  has 
been  explained  above.  And  above  all,  keep  in  mind  that  all  horizontal 
surfaces  of  objects  diminish  in  breadth  as  they  approach  the  horizontal 
line,  and  regain  their  true  width  when  they  depart  from  it,  either  by 
being  immediately  above  the  eye  or  directly  under  it.  This  rule  applies 
to  all  flat  surfaces;  and  this  is  why  surfaces  of  objects  whose  lines  are  at 
right  angles  with  their  base-line  increase  in  length  as  they  depart  from 
the  point  of  sight,  either  to  the  right  hand  or  to  the  left. 

commencing  a  course  of  drawing  from  antique  sculpture,  it  will  be  impossible  to  select  what 
is  beautiful  in  nature,  or  be  able  to  cboose  one  point  of  view  more  interesting  than  another. 
It  will  also  be  impossible  to  combine  a  variety  of  objects,  unless  we  have  a  knowledge  of 
those  principles  upon  which  the  various  works  are  constructed  that  have  given  satisfaction  ; 
for  though,  as  in  the  case  with  music,  the  varieties  are  endless,  yet  the  science  is  simple,  and 
to  be  perceived  by  those  who  investigate  the  arrangements  of  harmony.  He  who  attempts 
to  study  from  nature  unassisted  by  education,  in  the  first  instance,  will  find  himself  often 
mistaken  in  his  results  ;  neither  will  he  arrive  at  so  certain  or  so  expeditious  a  method  of 
delineating  objects  with  truth  and  feeling,  as  he  will  be  continually  in  dread  of  falling  into 
error. — JOHN  BURNET. 

23.  I  do  not  hold  it  to  be  at  all  requisite  that  the  photographer  must  be  a  complete 
analytical  chemist,  a  profound  physicist,  or  that  he  should  be  capable  of  solving  the  most 
intricate  of  the  optician's  problems  ;  but  I  do  maintain  that  he  should  have  a  general  com- 
prehension of  all  these  sciences ;  that  at  least  he  may  remark  intelligently  upon  the 
accidental  incidents  that  occur  in  his  working,  and  so  profit  by  them.  In  fact,  I  am  even 
one  of  those  who  uphold  that  the  superior  excellence  of  a  photograph  can  now  be  best 
attained  by  devotion  to  art  and  its  principles.  These  must  be  studied  with  the  same  assiduity 
given  to  the  understanding  of  the  chemicals. — JOHN  L.  GIHON. 


30  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

24.  When  the  mind  is  fully  informed  of  the  variety  of  courses  operat- 
ing upon  lines  so  as  to  change  their  appearance  to  the  eye,  natural  objects 
should  be  contemplated  with  the  various  changes  produced  in  their  forms 
by  their  situation.     The  eye  thus  becomes  familiar  with  these  alterations 
and  the  mind  enriched  by  a  variety  of  examples.      Faces  and  figures 
should  be  specially  and- continuously  studied  by  the  portrait  photographer, 
and  the  rules  just  laid  down  applied  to  them  as  they  are  measured  and 
estimated.     As  they  move  before  you,  you  not  only  notice  the  changes 
which  occur,  but  you  make  yourself  acquainted  with  the  causes  of  such 
changes. 

25.  In  illustration  of  this,  a  face  has  been  photo-engraved  with  a  line 
drawn  straight  down  the  centre  of  it  from  the  forehead  to  the  chin,  and 
which,  you  will  perceive,  when  viewed  directly  in  front,  as  in  ~No.  1,  pre- 

FIG  7  sents  a  straight,  perpendicular  line, 

though  actually  full  of  undulations 
from  passing  over  the  entire  profile. 
But  as  those  projections  and  reced- 
ings  of  the  lines  are  immediately 
under  each  other,  they  reach  the 
eye  in  the  same  manner  as  if  a 
string  was  held  up  perpendicularly  in  front  of  the  face.  If,  however,  the 

24.  Must  we  admit  that  our  calling  is  so  low  down  in  the  scale  of  human  occupation  as 
not  to  require  that  mental  training  and  preparation  necessary  in  every  occupation  requiring 
the  exercise  of  the  least  taste  or  capacity  ?     Then  let  us  n  >t  invite  that  verdict  at  the  hands 
of  the  public  by  flaunting  our  lack  of  information  in  its  face,  bringing  our  calling  into  dis- 
repute, and  ourselves  into  ridicule. 

Too  many  photographists  judge  their  work  as  a  mechanic  estimates  a  piece  of  nicely 
adjusted  machinery.  The  higher  elements  of  his  art,  shades  of  character,  feeling,  and  senti- 
ment, seem  to  be  utterly  and  naturally  lost  upon  one  whose  education,  in  his  profession,  has 
been  limited  by  neglect  or  indifference  to  simple  results  of  the  dark-room.  Is  any  real  artist 
satisfied  with  a  delineation  merely  of  the  physical  conformation  of  his  subject?  If  so,  his 
work  does  not  rise  higher  than  a  mechanical  operation  ;  his  genius  is  only  brought  into  play 
in  portraying  mind,  soul,  sentiment,  and  those  attributes  that  bring  his  subjects  nearer  to 
their  creator. 

The  photographist  can  never  rise  to  the  real  dignity  and  requirements  of  his  profession 
until  he  makes  himself  acquainted  with  the  feelings,  tastes,  and  sentiments  of  the  true  artist. 
— D.  H.  ANDERSON. 

25.  Photographs  will  eventually  be  stamped  with  as  strong  individual  character  as  the 
canvasses  of  Rubens  and  Titian.     Such  study  as  the  painter  bestows  cannot  be  given  to 
photographic  portraiture  ;  but  in  the  matter  of  lighting  the  sitter,  what  background  he  shall 
have,  what  accessories,  what  attitude,  there  is  an  infinite  choice  and  room  for  any  amount  of 


TREATMENT    OF    THE    SUBJECT.  31 

face  is  viewed  when  turned  round  half-way,  as  in  No.  2,  those  parts  of 
the  line  Avhich  recede  or  project  will  assume  one-half  of  their  true  char- 
acter and  projection,  while  in  the  profile  No.  3,  the  line  acquires  its  exact 
similitude,  from  its  being  undisturbed  by  those  laws  which  govern  per- 
spective. If  we  were  to  proceed  and  examine  each  feature  in  the  same 
manner,  we  should  find  that  the  same  laws  lead  us  into  a  correct  view  of 
the  alterations  which  take  place  upon  every  alteration  in  position. 

26.  To  explain  this  more  clearly :  If  we  take  one  of  these  faces  (bor- 
rowing an  illustration  from  Burnet  again),  and  hold  it  with  the  chin 
towards  us,  so  as  to  observe  the  curve  on  which  the  mouth  is  placed,  we 
can  easily  perceive  that  a  person  viewing  it  in  the  direction  of  the  lines 
A  B,  which  would  give  him  a  view  of  the  face  between  a  front  and  a 
profile  (or,  what  is   generally   termed,  a   three- 
quarter),  would  see  one  side  of  the  lip  of  its  en- 
tire length;  while  the  other  side,  lying  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  visual  rays,  would  be  reduced  to  a 

very  small  space,  as  maybe  perceived  by  its  breadth 
on  the  ideal  line  c,  which  cuts  such  rays  at  right- 
angles.  Such  also  is  the  case  with  the  nose  in 
the  same  view  of  the  face ;  one  side  remains  un- 
diminished,  while  the  other  side  forms  a  mere 
outline,  being  seen  entirely  under  the  influence  of  perspective. 

27.  It  is  now  the  purpose  of  what  follows  to  point  out  how  and  when 

originality  in  style.  The  art  is  yet  in  its  infancy,  and  already  many  photographers  of  artis- 
tic temperament  are  beginning  to  be  felt  in  the  character  of  their  productions. — CHARLES 
AKERS. 

26.  If  every  photographic  artist  could  have  one  of  Titian's  portraits  hanging  in  his 
studio,  the  result  would  soon  be  seen  in  our  likenesses.     In  these  portraits  there  are  no  dead 
surfaces,  there  is  no  distortion  ;  the  soul  looks  forth  from  its  windows  with  a  lofty  tranquil- 
lity.— CHARLES  AKERS. 

27.  There  are  many  examples  of  the  great  masters  with  whose  works  all  artists  should  be 
familiar  ;  and  the  remembrance  of  these  will  always  stimulate  and  suggest  invention.     In 
arranging  living  models,  however,  no  artist  will  succeed  if  he  attempt  to  imitate  pictures. 
Each  subject  should  be  treated  according  to  its  own  requirements — its  own  individualism. 
But  a  knowledge  of  good  works  will  aid  invention,  and  it  will  be  found  that  one  subject 
may  be  treated  with  advantage  after  the  style  of  one  master,  and  another  after  the  style  of 
another.      One  subject  would  inspire  a  Titian,  another  a  Kaphael,  a  third  Vandyck,  and 
others  in  succession — a  Velasquez,  a  Lawrence,  a  Rubens,  a  Reynolds,  or  a  Holbein. 

When  the  artist  is  interested  in  his  work,  and  believes  in  his  art,  it  becomes  wonderfully 
plastic,  and  the  materials  wonderfully  tractable  in  his  hands. — ADAM  SALOMON. 


32  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

a  knowledge  of  the  foregoing  principles  can  be  of  service  in  photog- 
raphy. It  is  done  with  many  a  foregone  conclusion  that  the  camera  can- 
not err,  and  that  whatever  is  rendered  by  its  aid  must,  so  far  as  drawing 
is  concerned,  be  faultless.  This  is  undoubtedly  a  mistaken  idea;  and 
even  if  we  were  to  admit  the  instrument  to  be  faultless,  what  of  the 
photographer  ? 

28.  It  has  been  stated  that  if  a  pencil  or  stick  is  held  parallel  with  the 
eyes,  and  gradually  turned  round,  it  will  seem  to  become  shorter  and 
shorter.     The  recollection  of  this  principle  will  be  found  of  much  value 
in  the  practice  of  photography.     Every  part  of  a  picture  is  more  or  less 
influenced  by  it,  and  very  objectionable  features  may  often  be  much 
modified  by  its  proper  use.     One  illustration  will  suffice,  and  will  suggest 
to  the  intelligent  reader  many  others.     For  example,  if  you  have  a  lady 
with  broad,  square  shoulders  as  your  sitter,  if  taken  parallel  with  the 
camera,  the  fact  of  her  having  broad,  square  shoulders  will  be  rendered 
to  its  full  extent;  but  if  the  same  figure  be  turned  so  as  to  give  a  three- 
quarter,  or  sometimes  a  profile  view,  it  will  be  found  to  lessc  n  the  pecu- 
liarity, and  more  graceful  lines  will  be  obtained. 

29.  It  has  also  been  stated  that  all  objects  diminish  in  size  as  the  spec- 
tator departs  from  them,  and  in  an  increased  ratio,  until  removed  to  a 
certain  distance,  Avhen  the  diminution  appears  less  violent;  and,  that  when 
objects  are  commenced  too  near,  they  appear  out  of  proportion  with  the 
other  objects  in  the  work;  and,  although  true  according  to  rule,  appear 
false  in  regard  to  their  effect  upon  the  eye  of  the  spectator.     This  ought 
to  suggest  the  advisability  of  using  a  lens  that  will  allow  of  its  being 
placed  at  a  proper  distance  from  the  sitter  or  object  which  is  being  photo- 
graphed, and  thus  avoid  giving  undue  prominence  to  any  part.     This  is  so 
apparent  in  its  application,  that  any  illustration  is  unnecessary,  yet  do  not 
overlook  an  error  which  not  unfrequently  occurs  by  violation  of  this  rule. 

28.  The  art  of  photography  is  essentially  a  work  of  selection.  The  photographer  does  not 
possess  the  power  of  the  artist,  who,  in  painting,  can  make  alterations  in  composition  arid 
vary  his  effects  during  the  progress  of  the  picture.  In  photography  it  is  the  opposite; 
everything  must  be  settled  beforehand,  or  the  production,  if  not  satisfactory,  must  be  set 
aside  and  the  work  be  commenced  anew.  A  quick  appreciation  of  correct  contour  of  line, 
with  a  good  knowledge  of  composition,  and  the  means  in  readiness  to  produce  a  suitable 
chiaro-oscuro  in  character  with  the  subject,  combined  with  the  ability  to  select  the  most 
favorable  view  of  the  model,  joined  with  an  easy  manner  of  doing  the  same  without  flurry- 
ing either  himself  or  the  sitter,  are  some  of  the  main  essentials  necessary  in  the  practice  of 
a  photographic  portraitist. — R.  SLINQSBY. 


TREATMENT    OF    THE   SUBJECT.  33 

30.  Heads  of  children  are  large  by  nature  in  proportion  to  their  bodies, 
but  this  is  often  considerably  increased  when  their  portraits  are  taken  by 
photography,  and  arises  from  their  being  short  of  stature.      They  are 
generally  under  the  eye  of  the  camera,  and  as  short-focus  lenses  are 
mostly  used  for  children,  to  secure  speed  in  working,  that  again  necessi- 
tates the  camera  being  placed  near  the  child,  and  thus  being  near,  and 
looking  down  on  it,  the  natural  consequence  is  that  a  picture  is  produced 
in  which  the  head  is  enlarged  and  the  figure  dwarfed.     The  remedy  for 
this  is,  use  a  very  low  stand  for  your  camera,  or  elevate  the  chiM  so  as  to 
bring  the  lens  at  least  parallel  with  the  face. 

31.  CIRCLES. — A  glance  now  at  what  has  been  said  under  this  head. 
Considering  how  many  curved  lines  there  are  in  the  drawing  of  a  face, 
it  will  naturally  suggest  itself,  that  a  thorough  knowledge  of  how  those 
curved  lines  are  affected  by  the  laws  of  perspective  must  be  of  great  im- 
portance to  the  photographer,  for  it  has  been  explained  how  a  circle,  such 
as  the  mouth  of  a  drinking-cup,  or  that  of  a  lens-tube,  when  held  in 
front,  by  simply  turning  it  gradually  away,  the  circle  will  be  seen  to  as- 
sume an  oval,  and  pass  through  all  the  elliptical  forms  until  the  brim  be- 
comes a  straight  line  in  appearance. 

Thus  it  is  evident  that  faces  which  are  naturally  too  round,  by  being 
more  or  less  turned  away  from  the  camera,  may  partake  more  of  the 
oval.  It  is  surprising  how  much  can  sometimes  be  done  by  attention  to 
this  rule,  not  only  affecting  the  face  as  a  whole,  but  Avhen  applied  to  in- 

30.  Any  good  photographic  artist  will  be  found  to  have  his  ideal,  just  as  any  good 
painter  or  sculptor— an  ideal  towards  which  he  is  striving,  and  from  which  he  is  always 
remote.     He  wishes  to  interpret  the  inner  truths  of  nature  ;    the  impossible  tempts  him. 
He  points  his  camera,  like  Giotto's  tower,  towards  the  infinite.     And  no  one  knows  better 
than  he  that  he  cannot  rely  upon  his  instruments,  that  cameras  and  chemicals  are  but  means 
of  growth  ;  that  for  all  finer  results  he  must  depend  upon  himself. — CHARLES  AKERS. 

31.  In  lieu  of  a  note  from  a  wiser  pen,  permit  an  anecdote  here  illustrating  this  last  point. 
A  lady  with  a  cast  in  her  eye  applied  to  an  artist  of  fame  for  a  portrait.     He  chose  a  profile 
view  of  her  face,  of  course.     Upon  being  remonstrated  with  by  her,  he  politely  answered, 
"Well,  madam,  to  tell  you  the  truth,  there  is  a  shyness  about  your  expression  that  is  as 
difficult  in  art  as  it  is  beautiful  in  nature."     And  he  was  perfectly  true  to  his  artist-nature 
in  trying  to  overcome  this  "shyness"  the  best  way  he  could.     Take  a  lesson  from  this. — 
EDWARD  L.  WILSON. 

32.  Without  any  reference  to  the  opinions  of  others,  and  without  any  chance  of  partiality 
in  your  own,  there  is  one  test  by  which  you  can  all  determine  the  rate  of  your  real  progress. 
Examine,  after  every  period  of  renewed  industry,  how  far  you  have  enlarged  your  faculty  of 
admiration.    Consider  how  much  more  you  can  see  to  reverence  in  the  work  of  masters,  and 


34  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

dividual  features  of  it.  For  instance,  a  mouth  that  droops  at  the  sides: 
by  selecting  some  pose  that  calls  for  inclining  the  head  slightly  forward, 
as  in  reading,  the  lines  of  the  mouth  will  assume  a  more  pleasing  form. 
Lineal  perspective,  then,  as  has  been  said  and  illustrated,  is  that  part  of 
drawing  which  is  produced  by  the  means  of  lines  only. 

32.  Aerial  perspective  is  used  to  designate  the  changes  made  in  the  ap- 
pearance of  objects  by  the  interposition  of  the  atmosphere.     By  the  ap- 
plication of  this  principle  in  art,  we  are  enabled  to  give  our  drawings  the 
space  and  retiring  character  of  nature.     It  is  agreeable  to  view  distant 
prospects,  yet  objects  require  a  certain  definition  to  lead  the  imagination 
without  perplexing  and  troubling  the  mind.     Neither  are  we  pleased  by 
sudden  jumps  from  the  foreground  to  the  extreme  distance.     More  de- 
light is  given  to  the  eye  by  being  carried  over  a  gradual  diminution  of 
many  intervening  objects,  or  in  searching  for  outlets  through  screens  of 
intervening  trees  or  clumps  of  buildings,  or  a  mass  of  accessories.     If 
you  observe  these  things,  your  understanding  of  them  is  sure  to  grow. 

33.  In  thus  producing  the  effect  of  distance,  the  atmosphere  helps  us. 
Yet  the  mind  requires  a  certain  variety  to  hold  it  in  amazement,  as  well 
as  a  certain  appearance  of  substance  to  give  a  reality  to  the  scene.     But 
if  the  atmosphere  is  deprived  of  the  means  of  refraction  by  reason  of  its 
clearness,  a  false  representation  is  produced,  the  effect  of  wrhich  is  that 
objects  appear  much  nearer  than  they  are  in  reality,  and  the  eye  is  de- 
prived of  the  gratification  of  viewing  the  outlines  of  objects  through  a 
variety  of  strengths.     This  effect  may  be  noticed  in  portraiture,  to  a 
small  degree,  when  a  lens  of  too  short  focus  is  used.     In  out-door  work, 
it  is  produced  by  using  a  very  wide-angle  lens.     The  whole  scene  appears 
to  be  produced  on  a  concave  surface  and  the  sides  stretched  and  pulled 

how  much  more  to  love  in  the  work  of  nature.  This  is  the  only  constant  and  infallible  test 
of  progress.  That  you.  wonder  more  at  the  work  of  great  men,  and  that  you  care  more  for 
natural  objects.  I  fear  that  the  tendency  of  modern  thought  is  to  reject  the  idea  of  that 
essential  difference  in  rank  between  one  intellect  and  another,  of  which  increasing  reverence 
is  the  wise  acknowledgment.  You  may,  at  least  in  early  years,  test  accurately  your  power 
of  doing  anything  in  the  least  rightly  by  your  increasing  conviction  that  you  never  will  be 
able  to  do  it  as  well  as  it  has  been  done  by  others.  That  is  a  lesson  which  differs  much,  I 
fear,  from  the  one  commonly  taught. — JOHN  RUSKIN. 

33.  Strive  to  do  the  best  you  can  for  each  sitter.  Don't  expose  the  plate  until  you  are 
satisfied  that  everything  is  as  near  right  as  you  can  make  it.  Keep  your  heart  and  mind  on 
what  you  are  doing.  Think  !  read  !  study  !  and  observe !  Don't  be  afraid  of  doing  too 
much,  and  success  is  sure  to  follow. — FRANK  JEWELL. 


TREATMENT    OF    THE   SUBJECT.  35 

like  half  of  a  rubber  ball,  until  the  distance  is  brought  almost  on  a  line 
with  the  foreground.  The  difference  in  definition  seems  correct,  but  the 
distance  appears  wrong,  though  perhaps  often  true  to  nature. 

34.  There  are  six   circumstances  which  may  be    used   to  assist  the 
photographer  in  judging  of  the  distances  of  objects :  1.  Their  apparent 
magnitude ;  2.  The  strength  of  their  shadows ;   3.  The  direction  of  the 
two  eyes;    4.  The  parallax  of  the  objects;   5.  The  distinctness  of  the 
small  parts;  6.  The  kind  of  lens  used.     In  this  last,  though,  is  our  weak- 
ness.     Our  power  is  limited   to  its  capacity  of  rendering  detail  and 
distance,  Avhile  the  painter  may  with  his  brush  "  correct  nature,"  or  at 
least  more  fully  satisfy  the  eye.     Still,  the  application  of  aerial  per- 
spective will  often  enable  us  so  to  work  as  to  keep  the  several  objects  in 
their  perspective  situations,  and  secure  a  natural  reality  throughout. 

35.  A  row  of  columns  will  diminish  as  they  are  drawn  true  to  lineal 
perspective,  but  it  is  this  quality  of  light  to  which  they  are  indebted 
for  their  effect  upon  the  eye.     Also,  FIG.  9. 

two   angles   may   occupy  the    same 

space  upon  the  retina,  but  by  this 

power  one  is  made  to  approach  and 

the  other  to  recede,  so  that  one  is 

diminished  to  the  size  of  a  tent,  and  the  other  increased  to  that  of  a 

pyramid,  as  in  Fig.  9.     The  student  may  find  subject  for  study  in  this  art 

element,  wherever  he  goes,  if  he  will  but  apply  himself  to  it. 

34.  Aye,  now  we  are  getting  at  it !  THINK.     Have  your  mind  on  what  you  are  doing,  and 
your  eyes  to  see  what  and  how  you  are  doing  it.     Note  the  slightest  effect  or  defect  produced 
by  this  or  that  change      Proceeding  thus,  other  and  greater  things  will  be  suggested  to  your 
mind,  and  erelong  you  will  know  how  and  what  to  use  for  the  various  negatives  you  wish 
to  make.     Then,  too,  will  the  thoughts  of  others  in  the  different  departments  of  photog- 
raphy render  you  intelligent  assislance,  thereby  making  them  your  own.      Again  I  say 
think. — B.  FRANK  SAYLOR. 

35.  The  real  trouble  in  life,  in  all  professions,  is  the  trouble  of  thinking ;  to  escape  which, 
the  most  laborious  trifling  is  caught  at,  but  if  fairly  grappled  with  in  the  outset,  everything 
becomes  clear,  and,  in  after  life,  that  which  is  a  continual  annoyance  to  many,  becomes  one 
of  the  greatest  gratifications. 

Why  is  it,  that  to  the  eye  of  an  artist  the  drawing  of  the  most  complicated  plan  is  rendered 
clear  at  a  glance,  while  to  others  it  requires  a  multitude  of  figures  as  reference,  and  a  long 
explanation  ?  It  is,  that  his  mind  has  been  educated  in  continual  intercourse  with  the  eye, 
and  the  constant  habit  of  reflecting  on  cause  and  effect  has  rendered  a  numerous  assemblage 
of  lines  intelligible  to  him,  which  to  others,  uneducated,  appear  like  a  species  of  hiero- 
glyphic.— JOHN  BURNET. 


3(3 


WILSON'S    PHOTOGKAPHICS. 


FIG.  10. 


86.  Iii  the  fine  marine  view,  by  "Willem  Van  de  Yelcle,  in  the  Cassel 
Gallery,  there  is  not  only  an  excellent  example  of  aerial  perspective,  hut  also 

of  that  assemblage 
of  lines  produced 
by  the  repetition  of 
forms  which  assists 
the  receding  of  ob- 
j  ects  from  their  dimi- 
nution, the  doubling 
of  the  lines  in  pro- 
ducing richness  of 
effect,  and  that  har- 
mony which  arises 
from  one  line  coun- 
teracting the  other 
in  its  direction,  giv- 
ing thereby  a  gen- 
eral balance  to  the 
If  you  comprehend 
understand  slowly, 
reflection  on  one  or  two  diagrams  will  be  of  more  service  than  educating 
the  eye  without  impressing  the  mind. 

37.  The  effect  of  aerial  perspective  upon  the  eye  being  mainly  attrib- 
utable to  the  application  of  shadow  to  the  several  outlines,  thereby  giv- 

36.  Do  not  let  yourself  be  a  mere  imitator,  and  lose  your  own  individuality.     In  this  way 
you  are  in  danger  of  cultivating  faults,  for  if  you  start  out  to  make  pictures  like  so  and  so's, 
you  may  make  them  like  his  bad  ones,  or  may  be  misled  by  a  reputation  above  merit.     Kather 
seek  to  form  in  your  own  mind  a  type  of  beauty,  the  approximation  to  which  will  stamp  all 
your  work  with  the  seal  of  your  individual  purpose.     Be  true  to  yourself.     Admit  no  half- 
work  ;  make  it  your  first  object  to  please  yourself,  or  rather  to  gratify  your  artistic  instincts, 
and  the  pleasing  of  your  customers  a  secondary  consideration.     There  is  always  a  conflict 
between  taste  and  ignorance;  carry  it  on  as  courteously  as  you  may,  but  yield  no  jot.     In 
time  you  will  be  supported  by  those  who  really  can  discern,  whose  opinion  is  received  by 
many  who  do  not  judge  for  themselves.     When  you  find  that  the  public  have  faith  in  you, 
keep  faith  with  yourself  and  them  by  always  doing  your  best. — W.  J.  BAKER. 

37.  Perhaps  no  class  of  subjects  better  exhibit  the  possibilities  of  photography  than  por- 
traits.    Here  in  a  well-constructed  studio  the  intelligent  artist  is  comparatively  master  of  the 
situation.     Here  he  need  not  grope  his  way  in  obscurity,  nor  lose  it  altogether  in  excess  of 
light;  for  it  is  under  his  control.     The  rays  of  light  which  refuse  to  affect  his  collodion,  he 
as  far  as  possible  excludes  from  his  lens.     He  has  choice.     Though  the  study  of  composition 


whole.    It  is  hardly  necessary  to  multiply  examples, 
rule,  it  is  easy  to  extend  it.     To  those  who 


TREATMENT    OF    THE   SUBJECT.  37 

ing  them  their  approaching  or  receding  character,  such  arrangement  is 
to  be  chosen  which  will  give  them- this  quality,  and  which  is  to  be  after- 
wards repeated  in  smaller  portions  through  the  piece.  In  accidental 
combinations  in  nature,  we  often  perceive  this  arrangement.  A\re  also 
find  aerial  perspective  indebted  in  its  effect  to  the  collection  of  many 
parts  whose  shadows  form  a  mass  of  half-tint,  their  distance  bringing 
them  in  apparent  contact,  owing  to  their  diminutions ;  while  their  soft- 
ness gives  them  apparent  distance,  owing  to  their  want  of  minute  parts. 
38.  Although  this  splendid  principle  cannot  be  demonstrated  to  the 
same  extent  as  linear  perspective,  by  rule,  it  is  needful  to  give  it  very 
careful  study.  True,  we  must  take  the  atmosphere  as  we  find  it — we 
cannot  alter  it.  Yet  if  we  have  our  eyes  educated  to  distinguish  its  dif- 
ferent phases,  we  shall  always  be  enabled  to  secure  the  best  effects  and 
know  them  when  we  see  them.  It  varies  so  much  under  different  circum- 
stances that  its  study  will  be  found  not  only  useful,  but  highly  interesting, 

and  chiaro-osctiro  is  of  vital  importance  in  all  departments  of  art,  it  is  here  more  than  ever 
that  he  can  make  his  knowledge  available.  True  art  looks  to  simplicity  ;  but  to  the  sim- 
plicity which  results  from  abundance,  not  that  which  grows  out  of  poverty.  In  a  photo- 
graph portrait  the  interest  ought,  as  in  painting,  to  be  centred  in  the  head,  for  it  is  the 
human  head,  after  all,  that  contains  the  intelligence  which  makes  man  the  beauty  of  the 
world,  the  paragon  of  animals  ;  nothing  in  art  is  so  difficult  to  handle  with  success,  and  the 
feeble  generally  resort  to  accessory  subterfuges,  which  deceive  none  but  the  ignorant,  to  cover 
up  their  faults  and  shortcomings.  As  the  camera,  if  well  constructed  and  commanded,  need 
not  fail  to  give  sufficiently  correct  drawing  and  beautiful  modelling,  the  photographer  can 
well  afford  to  practise  the  most  rigid  simplicity.  I  do  not  say  that  accessory  details  except 
in  bust  portraits  are  inadmissible,  but  they  ought  to  belong  to  the  subject.  In  the  hands  of 
the  man  of  genius,  they  enrich  ;  in  others,  they  encumber.  This  is  as  true  of  photography 
as  it  is  of  painting  ;  and  the  command  of  the  greatest  technical  skill  in  one  will  no  more  be 
substituted  for  real  art  feeling  than  in  the  other. — S.  G.  SELLSTEDT. 

38.  Quackery  has  but  too  much  power.  But  one  thing  it  cannot  do,  it  cannot  keep  us 
thinking  the  worst  is  the  best.  For  the  moment  it  may  mislead,  but  only  the  best  will 
command  enduring  approval.  So  we  want  the  best  you  can  give  us.  We  want  it  to  be  ever 
advancing.  Your  work  you  cannot  make  too  good.  I  hold  this  to  be  a  wholesome  and 
cheering  word.  It  has  sure  hope  for  all  who  are  trying  to  do  noble  work,  and  to  be  thus 
artists  indeed.  Let  them  take  comfort.  The  best  work  will  tell.  It  will  tell  even  on  the 
quacks.  The  good  worker  will  get  recognition.  Good  photographers  are  like  artists  in  any 
other  sphere  of  life — in  sculpture,  law,  painting,  medicine,  commerce,  preaching — sure,  if 
they  will  but  be  patient  and  loyal,  of  acceptance  and  honor  at  last.  But  they  must  bide 
their  time.  They  must  wait  until  we  of  the  public,  ignorant  as  we  are,  knowing  nothing 
of  their  art,  save  its  finished  results,  have  found  out  that  their  work  is  good.  Only  good 
work  can  stand  the  test.  Only  good  work  can  keep  favor  and  grow  in  favor.  And  once 
favor  sets  in  for  the  artist,  it  is  a  flowing  tide. — REV.  FREDERICK  FROTHINGHAM. 


38  WILSON'S  PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

besides  enabling  us  to  determine,  to  a  great  extent,  the  distance  of  one 
object  from  another  by  comparing  the  amount  of  light  reflected  from  each. 

39.  It  is  true  that  in  out-door  photography  this  principle  comes  most 
into  play,  but  the  eye  that  is  accustomed  to  its  study  there  will  be  the 
more  apt  to  discern  the  best  phases  and  the  varied  qualities  and  quanti- 
ties of  light  in  the  studio.     The  more  so  now,  in  these  days  of  rapidly 
working  chemicals  and  energetic  emulsions,  to  say  nothing  of  the  diffu- 
sion of  focus  lenses,  which  the  opticians  would  have  us  use.     As  we  are 
able  to  work  with  more  speed,  we  can  reduce  the  amount  of  reflected 
light  in  the  picture  and  secure  more  softness  and  mellowness,  both  in  the 
lights  and  in  the  shadows.     Between  the  hazy,  lazy,  wearied  sort  of 
light,  and  that  full  of  vigor  and  snap  and  hardness,  there  is  a  rich  and 
delicate  medium.     Having  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  aerial  per- 
spective, we  can  distinguish  these  effects  and  secure  them,  to  the  extinguish- 
ment of  the  defects  which  often  destroy  otherwise  good  photography. 

40.  It  has  been  the  effort  thus  far  to  interest  you  in  the  rudimentary 
principles  of  art,  with  a  view  to  their  practice  in  the  more  elaborate 
branch  thereof  called  composition.     This  embodies  the  arranging  of  the 
various  component  parts  of  a  picture,  so  that  its  general  effect  may  be 
one  of  harmony  and  order.     The  study  of  the  rules  which  govern  it 
cannot  be  too  earnestly  urged  upon  all  photographers.      Their  lack  of 
knowledge  on  the  subject  has  been  one  of  the  main  hindrances  to  the 
recognition  of  photography  as  a  member  of  the  circle  of  arts  which  has 
already  been  alluded  to. 

41.  Sound  may  be  brought  from  a  musical  instrument  by  any  child,  or 

89.  The  photographer's  first  care  should  be  to  study  his  model  before  placing  it  under  the 
ojective's  inflexible  and  undiscriminating  eye.  Here  begins  the  role  of  light,  with  the  infinite 
gradations  by  which  it  can  indicate  form.  It  is,  therefore,  of  the  utmost  importance  to  com- 
prehend the  characteristics  of  the  model,  and  how  they  may  be  best  rendered,  so  as  to  modify 
the  action  of  light,  and  thus  secure  in  the  portrait  suggestions  of  the  true  type  and  character 
of  the  sitter. — ADAM  SALOMON. 

40.  It  seems  to  me  that  a  careful  study  of  photography  is,  after  the  study  of  nature,  one  of 
the  best  helps  to  any  beginner  in  art.     It  must  surely  correct  that  tendency  to  shirk  the  hard 
work  in  drawing  which  has  been  fatal  to  so  many  Turners  and  Claudes.     It  keeps  the  multi- 
tudinousness  of  nature  ever  in  mind;  it  seems  to  place  the  vision  of  a  vastly  superior  eye 
constantly  before  us. — CHARLES  AKERS. 

41.  It  must,  of  necessity,  be  that  even  works  of  genius,  like  every  other  effect,  as  they 
must  have  their  cause,  must  likewise  have  their  rules.     It  cannot  be  by  chance  that  excel- 
lences are  produced  with  any  consistency  or  certainty,  for  this  is  not  the  nature  of  chance; 


TKEATMENT   OF    THE   SUBJECT.  39 

by  the  veriest  savage ;  but  it  would  not  be  music  with  sweet  harmony 
unless  the  chords  were  touched  by  the  skilled  and  law-abiding  hand.  It 
is  too  much  to  expect  the  products  of  the  camera  to  be  artistic,  then,  un- 
less he  who  wields  it  is  governed  by  the  principles  of  art.  True,  chance 
pictures  are  produced  with  some  claim  to  subject  by  photographers  who 
do  not  possess  one  idea  of  art ;  but  they  are  accidental.  They  should  be 
the  rule  and  not  the  exception.  They  can  be  by  proper  cultivation. 

42.  As  in  perspective  we  find  linear  and  aerial,  so  in  composition  we 
find  that  which  more  properly  belongs  to  the  lines  in  drawing — and  that 
which  belongs  to  the  light  and  shade.     They  are  friendly  allies,  always 
ready  to  help  one  another.     Let  us  consider  the  first  a  little  further. 
The  photographer  having  the  subject  of  his  picture  presented  before  him, 
should  at  once  pass  through  his  mind  what  material  he  has  at  his  dis- 
posal to  help  him,,  think  of  his  power  to  use  the  same,  and  conclude  upon 
the  final  effect  which  he  desires  to  produce. 

43.  And   in  thus   composing,  he  will   bring  into   play  the  most  fit 
accessories  at  his  command,  accepting  or  rejecting  as  he  finds  them  to 
add  to,  or  detract  from,  the  effect  of  the  finished  whole.     And  here  as 
much  simplicity  as  possible  is  advised,  for  he  is  the  greatest  master, 
certainly,  who  produces  the  most  with  the  least  apparent  effort. 

but  the  rules  by  which  men  of  extraordinary  parts,  and  such  as  are  called  men  of  genius, 
work,  are  either  such  as  they  discover  by  their  own  peculiar  observation,  or  of  such  a  nice 
texture  as  not  easily  to  admit  of  being  expressed  in  words ;  especially  as  artists  are  not  very 
frequently  skilful  in  that  mode  of  communicating  ideas.  Unsubstantial,  however,  as  these 
rules  may  seem,  and  difficult  as  it  may  be  to  convey  them  in  writing,  they  are  still  seen  and 
felt  in  the  mind  of  the  artist ;  and  he  works  from  them  with  as  much  certainty  as  if  they 
were  embodied,  as  we  may  say,  upon  paper.  It  is  true  these  refined  reasons  cannot  be  always 
made  palpable,  like  the  more  gross  rules  of  art;  yet  it  does  not  follow,  but  that  the  mind 
may  be  put  in  such  a  train  that  it  shall  perceive,  by  a  kind  of  scientific  sense,  that  propriety 
which  words,  particularly  words  of  unpractised  writers,  such  as  we  are,  can  but  very  feebly 
suggest. — SIR  JOSHUA  KEYNOLDS. 

42.  Concealing  the  art  is  one  of  its  greatest  beauties  ;  and  he  best  can  accomplisn  that  who 
can  discover  it  under  all  its  disguises.     I  ought,  however,  to  caution  the  young  artist,  on  this 
head,  not  to  be  too  fastidious  to  conceal  what  can  be  obvious  only  to  a  small  number  ;  for  in 
endeavoring  to  render  his  design  more  intricate,  he  may  destroy  character,  simplicity,  and 
breadth  ;  qualities  which  affect  and  are  appreciated  by  every  one. — JOHN  BURNET. 

43.  He  must  have  a  settled  knowledge  of  what  he  is  seeking  ;  he  must  have  a  quickness 
of  eye,  to  take  advantage  of  accidental  arrangements,  and  a  plan  of  methodizing  his  ideas, 
so  as  to  be  able  to  secure  what  he  acquires,  without  which  it  will  be  impossible  to  produce  a 
composition  upon  which  he  can  calculate  with  any  degree  of  certainty  as  to  its  effects  or  its 
stability.— JOHN  BURNET. 


40  WILSON'S   PHOTOGEAPHICS. 

44.  Before  proceeding  to  take  up  the  various  forms  of  composition 
which  are  the  most  easily  demonstrated  and  most  useful  in  photography, 
illustrating  each  method  by  sketches,  permit  a  few  remarks  which  are 
applicable  to  all. 

Here  is  a  diagram  of  the  three  great  varieties  of  lines  which  fall  more  or 

less  into  every  photographic  portrait. 
It  is  good  practice  to  reproduce  them, 
by  placing  your  accessories,  draperies, 
and  backgrounds  into  various  compo- 
sitions, and  then  study  them  over  and 
over  again.  The  three  great  classes, 
then,  are  as  follows  : 

45.  UPRIGHT  LINES,  or  lines  running 
upwards,  give  grandeur  and  dignity. 
You  will  find  this  demonstrated  in 
architecture,  for  instance  in  columns 
and  spires;  in  the  giant  trees  of  the 
forest ;  in  the  lofty  mountains ;  or,  what  is  more  suggestive  of  grandeur 
than  the  large  massive  clouds  to  be  seen  at  times  towering  one  upon  the 
other  in  the  far  west,  bathed  in  the  resplendent  light  of  the  departing 
sun  ?  To  bring  this  practically  home,  examine  some  of  your  photographs, 
and  you  will  find  that  tall  figures,  other  things  being  equal,  have  the  most 
dignity.  It  is  well  to  remember  this  when  posing,  for  much  can  be  done 
in  assisting  this  effect  by  properly  arranging  the  flowing  lines  of  the  dress, 
or  by  the  introduction  of  some  object  to  carry  out  and  extend  the  line. 

46.  HORIZONTAL  LINES  tend  to  repose,  and  again  the  reader  is  asked  to 
turn  to  nature  for  proof  of  this.     Look  at  a  fair-weather  sky ;  if  there  are 

45.  For  the  choice  of  line,  no  specific  rule  can  be  given.     The  artist  must  be  guided  by  the 
general  laws  of  harmony,  which  require  that  the  line  should  be  in  keeping  with  the  subject. 
It  may  be  the  parabola,  the  serpentine,  or  the  angle.     Harmony  also  requires  that  the  char- 
acter chosen  should  pervade  every  part  of  the  work. — M.  A.  DWIGHT. 

46.  Allston  says:  "  By  a  line  in  composition  is  meant  something  very  different  from  the 
geometrical  definition."     Originally,  it  was,  no  doubt,  used  as  a  metaphor  ;  but  the  needs  of 
art  have  long  since  converted  this,  and  many  other  words  of  like  application  (as  tone,  etc.), 
into  technical  terms.     Line,  thus,  signifies  the  course,  or  medium,  through  which  the  eye  is 
led  from  one  part  of  the  picture  to  another.     The  indication  of  this  course  is  various  and 
multiform,  appertaining  equally  to  shape,  to  color,  and  to  light  and  dark  ;  in  a  word,  to  what- 
ever attracts  and  keeps  the  eye  in  motion.     For  the  regulation  of  these  lines  there  is  no  rule 
absolute,  except  that  they  vary  and  unite  ;  nor  is  the  last  strictly  necessary,  it  being  sufficient, 


TKEATMENT   OF    THE   SUBJECT.  41 

clouds,  you  will  find  them  generally  with  a  horizontal  base;  and  even  if 
they  are  large  cumulous  clouds,  you  will  find  an  abundance  of  horizon- 
tal lines  to  give  the  effect  of  repose  and  rest.  What  is  more  peaceful  in 
effect  than  a  large  tract  of  level  country  ?  The  eye  is  carried  by  line  after 
line  to  the  distant  horizon.  Again,  the  sea,  when  in  repose,  is  calm;  and 
calm,  level  water  is  always  expressive  of  peace  and  quiet;  and,  when  travel- 
ling amidst  mountain  scenery,  as  has  been  already  stated,  suggestive  of 
grandeur,  what  is  more  peaceful  or  symbolic  of  repose  than  the  clear,  placid 
lake  at  the  mountain  base,  unless  it  is  the  horizontal  streak  of  cloud  which 
is  so  often  to  be  found  resting  on  the  rough  breast  of  some  peak  ? 

47.  WAVY  OR  TORTUOUS  LINES  indicate  motion  or  unrest.     Proof  of 
this  we  find,  if  we  look  at  the  sea  driven  about  and  tossed  with  the  wind, 
the  mountain  torrent,  clouds  in  motion,  a  flag  fluttering  in  the  breeze, 
the  crowded,  bustling  thoroughfare.     And,  supposing  many  readers  to 
possess,  or  to  have  access  to,  some  photographs  of  the  great  rapids  of 
Niagara,  if  they  are  studied,  they  will  bear  testimony  to  the  truth  of  this 
remark.    These  lines  become  of  great  service  in  standing  figures  of  ladies 
where  there  is  much  dress  to  be  disposed  of,  and  also  where  drapery  must 
be  introduced.     They  break  the  monotony  of  straight  or  unbended  lines, 
and  are  the  most  beautiful  of  all  when  permitted  in  proper  place. 

48.  Having  demonstrated  what  is  meant  by  composition,  a  few  of  its 
leading  forms  will  now  be  explained  and  illustrated ;  and  while  this  is 
done,  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  it  is  desirable  to  compel,  as  it  were, 

if  they  so  terminate,  that  the  transition  from  one  to  another  is  made  naturally,  and  without 
effort  by  the  imagination,  nor  can  any  laws  be  laid  down  as  to  their  peculiar  character ;  this 
must  depend  on  the  nature  of  the  subject. — M.  A.  DWIGHT. 

47.  No  established  rules  for  posing  can  be  given.     It  is  an  art  in  itself,  and  can  only  be 
acquired  by  diligent  study,  careful  observation,  and  profound  thought.     See  that  the  pose  is 
natural ;  no  matter  how  graceful  and  easy  it  may  be,  if  it  is  such  a  one  as  no  human  being 
takes  naturally,  it  is  simply  absurd. — FRANK  JEWELL. 

48.  A  beautiful  combination  in  nature  will  often  appear  to  evade  every  rule  by  her  being 
perfect  in  every  mode  of  examination.     All  her  varieties  emanate  from  a  straight  line  and  a 
curve.     A  judicious  arrangement  of  objects  possessing  these  various  forms  gives  the  strongest 
natural  appearance  to  a  picture  ;  nor  ought  the  artist  to  leave  out  rashly  what  he  may  con- 
ceive to  be  void  of  beauty.     In  coloring,  harsh  tints  are  admitted  to  produce  harmony  in  the 
other  colors ;  and  the  most  picturesque  arrangements  often  depend  on  the  presence  of  what 
might  otherwise  be  considered  ugly  forms. 

As  I  have  made  use  of  the  terms  "  beautiful  and  agreeable  arrangements,"  it  is  proper  to 
give  an  explanation  of  the  sense  in  which  they  are  applied.  By  a  beautiful  arrangement  I 
mean  a  proper  adaptation  of  those  principles  that  arrest  a  common  observer,  and  give  a 


42 


WILSON'S   PHOTOGKAPHICS. 


FIG.  12. 


eveiy  picture  produced  to  slavishly  conform  to  any  precise  rule.  But 
rather,  by  directing  attention  to  the  modes  of  construction  adopted  by 
those  whose  works  evince  a  full  acquaintance  with  the  principles  of 
composition,  it  is  hoped  to  cultivate  the  mind  and  educate  the  eye  of  the 
photographer.  He  may  then,  while  composing,  be  as  sensitive  to  an  un- 
graceful line  or  incongruous  accessory  as 
is  the  skilled  musician  to  a  false  note. 

49.  ANGULAK  COMPOSITION  is  the  form  to 
be  considered  first.  In  compositions  fol- 
lowing this  form,  the  greater  part  of  the 
lines  are  directed  diagonally,  as  in  the 
caricature  of  "  The  Flight  of  JEneas,"  from 
a  Campanian  mural  painting.  True,  we 
have  not  much  of  art  here,  but  we  have 
the  strict  following  of  the  principle  in 
question.  With  a  rule,  enclose  the  draw- 
ing in  a  square,  and  then  draw  lines  from 
the  right  upper  corner  to  the  left  lower, 
and  it  will  be  seen  how  true  this  is.  And 

yet  the  lines  are  not  so  severely  unbending  as  you  would  draw  them, 
though  directed  diagonally,  and  strictly  "  in  form." 

pleasurable  sensation,  which,  to  a  cultivated  mind,  increases  (not  diminishes)  by  the  investi- 
gation of  the  cause  which  produces  it.  For  example,  a  beautiful  appearance  in  nature  affects 
the  savage  and  the  philosopher  from  their  sensations  merely  as  men  ;  but  a  painter,  whose 
life  is  Bpent  in  a  constant  competition  with  nature  in  producing  the  same  effects,  receives  a 
tenfold  gratification  in  following  her  through  those  assemblages  which  to  the  world  are,  as  it 
were,  "  a  fountain  sealed  and  a  book  shut  up."  Hence,  in  art,  a  beautiful  arrangement  must 
be  a  selection  of  those  forms,  lights,  and  colors  that  produce  a  similar  result ;  and  the  taste 
of  an  artist  is  shown  in  heightening  their  effect  by  the  absence  of  those  circumstances  which 
are  found  by  experience  to  produce  the  contrary.  Did  an  investigation  of  the  means  pur- 
sued by  the  great  masters  tend  to  abridge  an  artist's  pleasurable  sensations,  instead  of  being 
the  most  favored,  he  would  be  rendered  the  most  miserable  of  beings ;  but  the  opposite  is  the 
case,  as  by  such  means  he  is  taught  an  alphabet  that  enables  him  to  understand  the  language 
of  nature. — JOHN  BURNET. 

49.  The  student  will  do  well  to  observe  attitudes  assumed  in  every-day  life,  and  adapt 
them  to  his  art.  When  he  sees  a  beautiful  attitude,  let  him  speculate  upon  the  cause  of  its 
being  beautiful,  and  he  will  find  that  it  depends  for  its  effect  on  its  consistency  with  the  rules 
of  composition  ;  and  although  these  rules  will  not  supply  him  with  imagination  sufficient  to 
enable  him  to  perpetually  invent  new  arrangements,  he  will  find  they  aid  him  very  materi- 
ally in  giving  expression  to  his  inventions,  and  will  prevent  him  being  extravagant  or 
exaggerated  in  his  arrangements  of  the  form.  He  should  also  store  his  mind  with  incidents 


TKEATMENT    OF    THE    SUBJECT. 


43 


50.  As  a  further  example, 


source,  "  Mignard's 


Daughter 


FIG.  13. 


picture  is  taken  from  a  more  modern 
painted  in  the  seventeenth  century,  "by 

Pierre  Mignard.     "Now  see  how  it  will 

instruct  you  to  observe  how  beautifully 

joined  the  lines  are  here.     Every  one 

is  full  of  grace,  uniting  in  the  most 

winning  manner,  one  part  of  the  pic- 
ture with  the  other,  and  every  curve  or 

bend  having  a  corresponding  curve  or 

bend   in    an    opposite    direction,   thus 

maintaining  a  perfect  balance.     Acces- 
sories and  lighting,  too,  are  all  made  to 

do  their  part  in  the  work.     This  is  a 

study  well  worth  the  careful  attention 

of  the  portrait  photographer,  for,  as  a 

whole,  it  is  a  composition  which  would 

not  be  difficult  of  his  imitation,  with  a 

living  model,  in  his  own  studio.     For 

this  reason  it  has  been  chosen.     It  is  full  of  suggestion  and  beauty,  too. 

suitable  to  his  sitters,  and  he  may  then,  perhaps,  be  able  to  give  less  occupation  to  the  eternal 
book  we  see  in  the  hands  of  photographees  almost  as  often  as  a  roll  of  paper  is  represented 
in  the  statues  of  statesmen. — H.  P.  EOBINSON. 

50.  It  is  universally  allowed  that  Kaphael  excelled  all  other  painters  in  a  graceful  arrange- 
ment of  drapery,  and  a  natural  disposition  of  folds.  By  studying  the  principles  of  the  ancients, 
he  learned  to  consider  the  figure  as  the  principal  part,  and  that  drapery  should  be  considered  as 
an  accessory.  That  it  is  intended  to  cover  and  not  to  conceal.  That  it  is  employed  not  from  ca- 
price, but  from  necessity.  Consequently,  the  dress  should  not  be  so  narrow  as  to  constrain  the 
members,  nor  so  ample  as  to  conceal  them,  but  suitably  adapted  to  the  size  and  attitude  of  the 
figure  represented.  His  ample  draperies  had  no  useless  folds,  and  were  bent  at  the  articulations. 
The  form  of  the  figure  indicated  the  form  of  the  folds,  and  on  the  great  muscles  he  formed  great 
masses.  "When  any  limb  was  foreshortened  in  the  drawing,  he  covered  it  with  as  many  folds  as 
if  it  were  extended,  but  crowded  them  in  proportion  to  the  foreshortening.  By  the  folds  of  his 
draperies,  it  is  easy  to  determine  the  attitude  of  the  figure  previous  to  the  one  in  which  it 
appears.  For  example  :  whether  the  arm  were  extended  or  reposing  immediately  before  the 
action  in  which  it  is  represented.  This  was  an  expression  he  carefully  studied  on  all  occa- 
sions. When  the  drapery  was  to  cover  the  leg  or  the  arm  but  partially,  he  made  it  cut  the 
member  obliquely.  His  folds  were  of  a  triangular  form.  The  reason  for  this  is  found  in 
nature ;  for  all  drapery,  after  being  extended  and  then  falling  again  under  the  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere,  is  naturally  formed  into  triangles.  His  whole  practice  demonstrates  the 
theory  that  the  movements  of  the  figure  cause  the  peculiar  form  and  position  of  the  fold? 
exhibited  in  the  drapery  that  covers  it. — M.  A.  DWIGHT. 


44 


WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS, 


51.  Many  artists,  when   composing   on    this   principle,   especially   in 

landscape  pieces,  so  arrange  the  cloud  lines  that  they  form  a  balance  by 

FIG.  14.  running  counter  to  the  lines 

in  the  composition  proper, 
as  shown  in  this  very  beauti- 
ful example,  "  The  Harvest 
Wagon,"  by  Philipp  "Wou- 
werman,  which  hangs  in  the 
Leuchtenberg  Gallery.  We 
may  almost  see  the  forms 
of  the  figures  repeated  in 
outline  in  the  clouds,  by  re- 
versing the  picture.  The 
story  is  well  told,  and  the 
artist  was  true  to  the  princi- 
ples of  his  art. 

52.  Something  more  di- 
rectly in  the  line  of  pho- 
tographic portraiture  will 
be  found  in  the  picture 
of  "  Master  Lambton,"  by 
Sir  Thomas  Lawrence,  that 
wonderfully  successful  por- 
trait painter  whose  works  are  always  worthy  of  study.  Many  painters, 

51.  The  sky  requires  careful  study  and  arrangement  to  produce  the  right  effect.     The  lights 
formed  by  the  clouds  must  be  arranged  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  lose  their  force.     Small 
clouds  seldom  have  a  good  effect,  and  betray  a  feebleness  of  manner  in  the  artist,  excepting 
when  they  are  so  arranged  as  to  form  a  single  object.    Clouds  give  expression  to  the  character 
of  the  scene  represented  ;  for  instance,  as  they  gather  for  an  approaching  storm,  or  break  away 
to  make  an  opening  for  the  welcome  sunbeam,  after  having  deluged  the  earth  with  water.   And 
again,  they  may  express  the  beautiful  repose  of  a  quiet  summer  afternoon. — M.  A.  DWIGHT. 

52.  The  first  condition  of  a  good  attitude  is,  that  it  should  be  in  harmony  with  the  age, 
stature,  habits,  and  manners  of  the  individual ;  secondly,  that  it  should  express  the  greatest 
beauty  of  which  the  model  is  susceptible.     As  we  have  already  stated,  the  perfect  knowl- 
edge of  the  individual  is  the  sole  guide  for  a  suitable  choice  of  the  position  ;  the  defect  to 
be  most  guarded  against  is  that  caused  by  borrowed  and  studied  attitudes.     The  photogra- 
pher must,  therefore,  observe  attentively,  reflecting  on  his  subject,  and  try,  by  all  possible 
means,  to  engage  the  attention  of  his  model,  and  to  endeavor  to  make  him  cease  to  think  of 
the  portrait  for  which  he  is  come,  seizing  and  noting  the  natural  movements  which  are  visi- 
ble during  these  short  intervals  of  forgetfulness. — M.  DISDERI. 


FIG.  15. 


TKEATMENT    OF    THE    SUBJECT. 

in  adopting  the  angular  form  of  composition,  'have  so  arranged  the 
leading  lines  and  points  in  their  pictures  as  to  form  a  diamond,  and  an 
examination  will  serve  to  show  they 
have  done  so  to  good  purpose,  as  groups 
so  arranged  have  a  very  pleasing  effect 
upon  the  eye.  The  "  Master  Lamb  ton  " 
requires  but  little  filling  in  of  a  line  to 
make  it  of  diamond  form.  Turn  it  side- 
ways and  we  have  a  pyramidal  form, 
of  which  method  what  follows  will  tell 
more  particularly. 

53.  THE  PYRAMIDAL  FORM  OF  COMPO- 
SITION, in  many  respects,  closely  resem- 
bles the   angular,  the  only  difference 
being,  that  although  the  angular  may, 
and  often  does,  contain  within   itself 
many  pyramidal  parts,  yet  the  angular 
form  predominates,  and  vice  versa,  in 
pyramidal.     And  while  there  may  be 

much  in  the  composition  or  arrangement  that  would  be  apt  to  have  it 
classed  as  angular,  yet  the  impression  given,  when  viewed  as  a  whole, 
or  when  the  leading  lines  are  analyzed,  will  be  that  it  partakes  most  of 
the  form  ot  a  pyramid.  This  form  is  particularly  adapted  to  groups. 

54.  It  is,  therefore,  thought  best  to  mark  the  distinction,  as  the  pyram- 
idal will  be  found  to  be  the  most  generally  useful  in  composing  single 

53.  Now  what  we  want,  good  fellows,  is  less  reality  and  more  idealism  ;  less  completeness 
and  more  suggestions ;  less  of  the  actual  and  more  inference  in  our  work.     This  intensify 
of  truthfulness  amounts  to  deformity  and  disfigurement,  and  is  a  dangerous  fault  because  of 
its  negative  merit.     It  is  a  rare  requisite,  this  thing  we  lack.     A  coy,  shapeless,  almost  inde- 
scribable quality  ;  better  told  in  what  it  does  not  consist  than  in  what  it  does.     An  ethereal, 
atmospheric  quality — fleeting  and  full  of  feeling  ;  a  quality  not  so  much  of  brains  as  soul,  and 
yet  plainly  with  brains  to  back  it. 

To  be  literal  and  practical  in  this  matter  submit  to  the.  rules,  although  seemingly  incon- 
sistent to  apply  rules  to  idealizing  photography. — J.  H.  KENT. 

54.  Our  chemical  effects  may  be  faultless,  our  pictures  ever  so  sharp,  but  without  proper 
pose,  lighting,  and  expression,  our  resulting  pictures  will  only  be  stiff,  hard,  soulless  images. 
Without  this  soul  and  lifelike  animation  that  proper  care  can  obtain,  and  may  always  be 
found  in  every  face  (be  it  ever  so  dull),  we  fall  far  short  of  what  our  art  is  capable  of  pro- 
ducing, and  the  good  to  which  we  all  should  aim,  and  to  which  we  all  can  reach,  if  we  only 
apply  the  means  placed  before  us. — ALEXANDER  HESLER. 


46 


WILSON'S    PHOTOGKAPHICS. 


EXAMPLES  OF   ANGULAR   COMPOSITION,  PHOTO-ENGRAVED   FROM   NATURE. 


TREATMENT    OF    THE    SUBJECT.  47 

figures,  particularly  ladies — in  fact,  three-fourths  of  the  portraits  pro- 
duced hy  photography  will  he  found,  on  examination,  to  partake  of  this 
form.  It  is  hoped  that  its  study  will  lead  to  perhaps  a  hetter  appreciation 
of  where,  and  in  what  manner,  to  introduce  complementary  lines.  In 
arranging  groups  of  figures,  a  regard  to  and  application  of  this  form  of 
composition  will  often  he  found  useful.  Remember,  then,  the  very  great 
importance  there  is  for  having  a  graceful  or  pleasantly  flowing  line, 
either  internally  or  in  that  which  constitutes  the  leading  outline.  This 
will  apply  to  all  the  leading  forms  of  composition. 

55.  It  is  not  intended  to  advocate  anything  like  a  close  approximation 
in  any  composition  to  the  lines  forming  a  pyramid,  hut  rather  as  in  listen- 
ing to  any  well-known  air  with  variations  we  have  no  difficulty  in  tracing 
the  air  itself  running  through  them  while  the  piece  is  being  performed, 
so  in  the  necessarily  varied  lines  of  a  drawing  or  photograph,  if  there  is 
art  or  design  in  its  construction,  the  educated  eye  can  discover  the  method 
of  composition,  and  thus  more  readily  enter  into  and  understand  the 
motive  or  intention  of  the  artist.     From  the  author's  collection  of  photo- 
graphic portraits,  six  examples  of  the  angular  and  six  of  the  pyramidal 
form  of  composition  have  been  selected  and  photo-engraved,  as  proofs 
of  how  these  principles  may  be  carried  daily  into  practice. 

56.  To  explain  this  point  more  fully,  an  example  is  given,  "  The  Expul- 

55.  This  art  of  composition  is  a  part  of  photography,  just  as  it  is  of  music  or  architecture, 
or  of  any  other  of  the  fine  arts.     It  enters  into  the  construction  of  the  simplest  picture. 
One  view  of  a  face,  unless  it  is  well  chosen,  is  often  of  little  value  as  a  likeness.     Suppose 
we  catch  a  swift  glimpse  of  a  stranger's  profile ;  it  is  very  little  we  know  of  his  face  and 
character  until  we  have  seen  more  of  him.     But  a  momentary  glimpse — one  look  of  the 
face — is  all  that  a  photograph  likeness  gives  us.     The  moment  you  begin  to  arrange  your 
sitter  to  get  the  most  of  kim  before  the  camera,  you  are  studying  the  art  of  composition. 
Every  change  of  position,  every  object  you  introduce,  every  bit  of  light  and  shade  aug- 
ments or  diminishes  the  value  of  the  picture.     It  must  conform  to  the  ancient  law  of  variety 
and  unity,  and  the  more  variety  introduced  the  harder  the  problem  of  unity  becomes.     It 
seems  reasonable  that  the  study  of  the  masters  in  pictorial  and  plastic  art  would  be  of  ad- 
vantage in  photography  as  it  is  in  the  other  arts.     I  need  only  suggest  among  the  many 
the  names  of  Turner  and  Rembrandt  as  great  masters  of  composition.     Tintoretto  is  another 
who  has  hardly  an  equal ;  but  I  cannot  understand  why  his  work  in  any  form  is  almost 
inaccessible  to  us. — CHARLES  AKERS. 

56.  Make  it  a  constant  practice,  before  removing  the  cap  from  the  lens,  to  first  give  a 
rapid  glance  at  the  sitter,  to  see  whether  the  outline  of  the  figure  composes  well,  that  the 
light  and  shade  are  massive  and  round,  and  that  there  appears  some  indication  of  the  expres- 
sion you  desire  on  the  face  of  the  sitter.     If  there  is  a  lack  of  either  of  these  qualities,  do 
not  waste  your  plate  until  you  have  got  them  before  your  lens. — H.  P.  ROBINSON. 


48  -WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

eion  of  Hagar,"  by  G.  Flink,  with  the  pyramidal  lines  running  througli  It. 
An  examination  will  show  the  play  and  variety  of  the  outlines.    While  a 
FIG.  IB.  graceful  outline  is  obtained,  do  not 

overlook,  but  be  very  careful  in  ar- 
ranging and  composing,  the  internal 
lines  of  the  composition. 

57.  Nothing  should  be  considered 
too  trivial ;  every  part  should  receive 
a  due  amount  of  care.  At  times, 
simply  the  fold  of  a  dress,  or  the 
proper  position  of  an  otherwise  in- 
significant accessory,  will  put  the 
whole  picture  in  harmony. 

Ruskin,  in  speaking  of  arrange- 
ment in  the  smallest  detail,  takes  notice  of  some  leafage  in  the  foreground 
of  one  of  Turner's  paintings,  and  says:  " Unless  every  leaf  and  every 
visible  form  or  subject,  however  small,  forms  a  part  of  some  harmony,  it 
has  no  business  in  the  picture.  It  is  a  necessary  connection  of  all  the 
forms  and  colors,  down  to  the  last  touch,  which  constitutes  great  or  in- 
ventive work,  separated  from  all  common  work  by  an  impassable  gulf." 

58.  Also  note,  that  whether  it  is  a  single  figure  or  group  that  is  being 
arranged,  it  is  of  great  importance  to  have  variety  in  the  flow  of  the  lead- 

57.  In  taking  the  portrait  of  a  sitter,  I  generally  decide  at  a  glance  the  best  point  of  view 
of  the  face  and  the  kind  of  lighting  required  to  suit,  securing  a  graceful  pose,  and  quietly 
making  all  the  arrangements  without  hurry  and  bustle,  keeping  up  a  quiet  conversation  till 
the  critical  moment  of  exposing  the  plate.     To  secure  a  happy  expression  on  the  features  of 
our  sitters,  so  that  their  photographic  counterpart  shall  represent  animate  instead  of  inani- 
mate beings,  is  the  most  difficult  part  of  the  portraitist's  art.     In  this,  more  than  any  other 
point,  is  seen  the  difference  between  the  works  of  an  art-photographer  and  those  of  thf 
merely  mechanical  one. 

In  posing  avoid  straight  lines  and  right  angles  in  the  figure  ;  and  try  to  secure  flowing 
line,  but  not  to  overdo  it,  as  I  have  seen  posing  run  mad  of  late — sitters  taken  in  the  most 
extraordinary  attitudes.  I  know  a  photographer  who,  on  seeing  a  fine  posed  portrait  by  me 
or  any  of  his  friends,  will  rush  home  with  it  and  take  all  his  sitters  for  a  month  in  that 
pose, .until  a  fresh  idea  crops  up  from  another  friend,  and  then,  but  not  till  then,  does  he 
give  his  sitters  a  change.  This  I  think  rather  too  bad,  and  I  often  tell  him  to  manufacture 
his  own.  It  is  much  better  to  invent  one's  own  style  of  portraiture  than  to  be  continually 
copying  another  photographer's  work. — K.  SLINGSBY. 

58.  Variety  in  our  work  has  not  been  sufficiently  insisted  on.     "We  go  on  year  by  year  in 
the  same  old  grooves  ;  we  make  the  same  old  cartes  and  vignettes  ;  the  same  front  elevations 
of  houses  and  public  buildings.     Not  that  we  are  not  fond  of  variety  ;  on  the  contrary,  we 


TREATMENT   OF   THE    SUBJECT. 


49 


ing  outlines.  Take,  for  example,  a  single  figure,  and  suppose  it  to  be 
photographed,  front  figure,  front  face.  You  might  draw  a  line  down  the 
centre  and  find  each  of  the  halves  exactly  alike,  symmetrical,  if  you 
choose,  from  being  alike,  but  certainly  not  graceful.  Turn  either  the 
head  or  the  figure,  however  slightly,  giving  a  trifling  bend  or  inclination 
to  the  head,  and  you  need  not  to  be  furnished  with  a  drawing  to  prove 
which  gives  the  best  eifect. 

59.  Likewise  with  a  group,  do  not  have  each  figure  placed  at  equal 
distances,  nor  all  look-  FlG  17 

ing  in  the  same  direc- 
tion, unless,  indeed,  to 
tell  the  story,  and  even 
then  variety  can  be  ob- 
tained by  varying  the 
pose  of  the  heads.  But, 
as  a  good  illustration 
will  enforce  the  idea 
much  better  than  any- 
thing that  can  be  writ- 
ten, carefully  study  the 


engraving, 


for 


exam- 


ple, of  "Family  Devo- 
tion,'' by  Jean  Baptiste 
Glreuze.  A  better  one 
could  not  be  given,  both 

as  to  the  flow  of  the  outlines  and  the  various  inclinations  of  the  heads. 
Or  a  similar  study  may  be  found  in  TVilkie'rt  "Blind  Fiddler.''  The 

like  it  well  enough  when  we  can  get  it  cheap,  without  any  trouble,  ready  made.  If  one, 
with  a  little  more  ingenuity  or  imagination  than  his  fellows,  traces  out  a  new  tract,  he  is 
first  allowed  to  test  its  fruitfulness,  and  if  it  is  found  successful,  there  is  a  rush  of  all  his  fel- 
lows to  scramble  for  the  nuggets  on  his  claim.  "  Why  don't  photographers  prospect  for 
themselves  ?  They  are  pretty  sure  to  find  some  artistic  or  technical  mine  or  other  that  will 
pan  out  well,  and  bring  them  fame  or  fortune,  perhaps  both. — H.  P.  ROBIXSON. 

59.  A  great  improvement  can  be  made  in  posing  (at  least  in  some  cases) ;  some  photogra- 
phers, or  would-be  photographers,  treat  their  subjects  in  a  manner  which  is  perfectly  horri- 
ble. For  instance,  even  in  a  bust  picture,  the  head  is  turned  to  one  side  about  a  three-quar- 
ter view,  just  enough  for  the  tip  of  the  nose  to  come  even  with  the  outline  of  the  face, 
thereby  giving  an  unnatural  appearance  to  most  faces  ;  and,  again,  in  Rembrandt  lighting, 
posing  the  head  so  that  the  ear  of  the  sitter  will  on  the  right  side  be  just  visible,  or  a  part  of  it, 
^ 


50 


WILSON'S    PHOTOGKAPHICS. 


FIG.  18. 


latter  \vill  be  remembered  by  tlie  readers  of  the  Philadelphia  Photograph 
for  1879,  page  331,  and  it  may  be  also  seen,  with  remarks,  on  page  H5 
of  Robinson's  admirable  Pictorial  Effect  in  Photography.  ~No  one  at 
the  present  day  can  say  he  has  no  opportunity  for  studying  art,  for  by 
the  cheapness  of  the  press  it  is  brought  within  the  reach  of  the  humblest, 
in  magazine  and  book  illustration.  Our  news-stands  are  full  of  studies. 
60.  When  you  have  practised  this  habit  for  awhile,  you  will  find  your- 
self measuring  every  picture  you  see 
by  the  rules  of  art;  and  the  study  of 
art  will  become  an  unending  pleasure 
to  you.  As  another  excellent  example 
of  this  form  of  composition,  an  engrav- 
ing is  given  here  of  "  The  Empty  Jug," 
by  A.  Yon  Ostade.  Take  these  figures, 
individually  or  collectively,  and  you  will 
find  the  pyramidal  lines  carefully  ob- 
served by  the  artist.  How  capitally  the 
story  is  told,  too,  not  only  by  the  atti- 
tude, but  by  the  expression  of  the  mem- 
bers of  this  disappointed  and  curious 
trio.  It  is  a  picture,  too,  not  hard  to 
repeat  by  means  of  photography,  for 
such  groups  are  no  longer  beyond  the  capabilities  of  our  wonderful  art. 

just  enough  of  it  that  when  you  look  at  the  picture  you  will  not  be  able  to  tell  whether  it  is 
an  ear  or  a  wart, -or  what  it  is.  Now  I  claim  that  such  small  things  should  not  be  over- 
looked, no  matter  how  good  otherwise  the  negative  may  be.  It  will  pay  to  make  it  over,  for 
your  customer  will  not  be  satisfied  with  such  work  ;  and  how  could  you  expect  him  to  ?  The 
sooner  photographers  learn  those  lessons  which  go  to  make  up  in  a  large  degree  the  success- 
ful photographer,  the  better  it  will  be  for  them,  and  the  day  is  coming  when  those  cheap 
Johns,  who  care  nothing  about  good  artistic  positions,  well-lighted  and  manipulated  effects, 
must  of  a  necessity  take  a  back  seat.  Our  citizens  are  learning  how  to  appreciate  good 
work,  therefore  we  must  be  alive  to  our  own  interest.  Should  you  complain  that  your  cus- 
tomers are  leaving  you,  and  are  patronizing  the  larger  cities,  just  take  a  good  square  look  at 
yourself  and  your  work,  and  see  if  you  are  not  behind  the  times. — F.  M.  WELLS. 

60.  Some  photographers  pay  too  much  attention  to  the  dress  of  their  customers,  forgetting 
they  have  a  face ;  this  far  too  common  habit  must  be  changed  by  those  who  would  make  a 
reputation  with  the  general  public. 

In  the  now  fashionable  large  head  on  the  card  size,  always  draw  the  focus  well  forward; 
if  not,  the  back  hair  will  be  too  sharp,  the  whole  effect  inartistic,  the  picture  lacking  round- 
ness ;  also,  for  the  reason  that,  if  too  far  back,  the  features  will  be  out  of  proportion,  the 


TREATMENT    OF    THE    SUBJECT. 


Operation,"   by  Adrian 


FIG.  19. 


61.  Permit  another  example — "A  Surgical 
Brouwer,  from  the  Stadel  Gallery 
at  Frankfort.  Here,  too,  it  will  be 
observed  how  the  artist  has  been 
constrained  by  the  form  of  com- 
position in  question.  The  diagonal 
form  is  also  well  represented  in  it, 
amid  the  internal  lines,  and  the 
whole  is  in  most  excellent  harmony. 
When  the  study  of  light  is  under- 
taken, this  excellent  picture  may 
be  again  referred  to  with  profit.  It 
is  a  wonder  in  that  line,  showing  the 
ability  of  the  master  in  a  high  de- 
gree. The  interest  in  the  picture  is 
all  derived  from  circumstances  actu- 
ally present,  truly  expressed  on  the 
canvas.  The  girl  who 

"...  Never  told  her  love, 
But  let  concealment,  like  a  worm  i'  the  "bud, 
Feed  on  her  damask  cheek,"  etc., 

\vould  have  been,   much  more   difficult  to   represent  in   a  picture. 

nose,  mouth,  and  chin  will  be  distorted  and  enlarged,  thus  the  drawing  will  be  faulty. — 
CHARLES  WAGER  HULL. 

It  will  be  readily  seen  that  the  study  of  costume  is  of  great  importance  to  the  artist,  yet 
he  must  be  careful  not  to  go  too  much  into  detail  in  regard  to  time,  place,  etc.  The  promise 
of  art  allows  him  a  certain  latitude,  of  which  he  must  avail  himself  if  he  would  make  a 
pleasing  picture;  on  Che  other  hand,  he  must  be  careful  not  to  err  in  taking  too  much,  be- 
tween the  two  extremes  he  will  be  guided  by  his  taste  and  judgment;  rejecting  what  is  un- 
necessary to  truth,  and  admitting  all  appropriate  beauties  and  characteristics. 

There  is,  perhaps,  no  department  of  art  where  taste  and  propriety  are  so  requisite,  yet 
many  instances  occur  among  the  works  of  the  great  masters  where  they  apparently  attached 
no  importance  to  the  costume  of  a  picture.  These  the  student  must  not  take  as  a  guide. 
For  instance,  a  picture  of  Eve,  having  her  hair  tied  with  blue  ribbons  ;  or  the  Israelites,  rep- 
resented with  muskets,  as  in  Tintoretto's  picture  of ' '  The  Falling  of  Manna. '- — M.  A.  DWIGHT. 

61.  In  the  posing  of  the  model,  it  should  be  our  first  care  to  see  that  each  and  every  part 
of  the  figure  is  natural,  and  that  the  muscles  of  the  body,  and  especially  the  neck,  are  relaxed 
and  easy.  Avoid  sharp  angles  and  straight  lines,  and,  as  a  general  thing,  the  head  and  body 
should  turn  in  different  directions,  and  a  gentle  curve  of  the  neck  will  frequently  give  ease 
to  the  whole  position. — FRAXK  JEWELL. 


"WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 


62.  In  the  Dresden  Gallery  is  an  admirable  painting  of  the  studio  of 
Adrian  Van  Ostade,  whose  "-Empty  Jug"  you  have  just  looked  upon. 
FlG-  20-  It  is  so  wonderfully  full  of  suggestion 

that  it  is  given  here  as  a  study,  more 
especially  in  the  arrangement  of  acces- 
sories. Look  into  it  well,  and  see  how 
wondrously  the  artist  has  been  influ- 
jj  enced  by  the  form  of  composition  now 
under  contemplation.  It  is  full  of  pyr- 
amids and  diagonals,  and  yet  how  beau- 
tifully harmonious  it  is  in  every  partic- 
ular, and  how  true  to  nature. 

63.  Should  you  desire  to  further  ex- 
ercise in  the  study  of  this  style  of 
composition,  take  prints  from  your  own 
negatives  and  study  them,  taking  note 
of  where  yon  have  er-red  and  where 
you  have  preserved  the  proper  form. 
Draw  pyramidal  lines  if  you  will,  as  in  the  figure  above,  and  then  invent 
improvements  agreeable  to  the  subject  and  the  accessories  you  may  pos- 
sess. As  has  been  said,  it  is  not  intend- 
ed that  a  rigid  following  should  always 
be  observed  of  the  form  of  composition 
chosen  by  you  for  your  picture  in  hand. 
Only  let  it  influence  you,  as  the  sun  and 
the  clear  air  do  when  you  walk.  How 
even  the  ancients  worked  pyramidally 
is  shown  by  "  The  Goat  and  Faun," 
taken  from  a  mural  painting  at  Herculaneum.  These  illustrations  par- 

63.  If  you  would  have  success,  you  must  work  for  it.  Look  at  the  example  of  Mr.  "W. 
Kurtz,  the  artist-photographer.  Let  us  look  into  the  cause  of  his  great  success.  In  the 
first  place,  he  is  the  very  hardest  and  most  faithful  worker  in  the  whole  establishment. 
Every  pose  is  made  either  hy  him  personally  or  under  his  immediate  supervision  ;  the 
lighting  especially  claiming  his  entire  attention.  I  sometimes  think  he  knows  exactly  what 
he  is  about.  The  features  of  every  individual  undergo  close  scrutiny,  and  the  most  is  made 
of  his  or  her  points.  Nothing  is  "all  right"  until  he  has  thoroughly  examined  it,  and 
every  negative  taken  is  carefully  studied  by  him  before  he  says  it  is  "all  right."  Again, 
he  examines  every  "proof"  before  it  is  shown  to  the  sitter,  and  such  as  do  not  come  up  to 
the  mark  of  "all  right"  are  destroyed. — ELBERT  ANDERSON. 


FIG.  21. 


TKEATME^T    OF    THE    SUBJECT. 


53 


p     '',/-.'   /•     •         '--  -  ~~-    • 


COMPOSITION,  PHOTO-ENGRAVED    FROM    NATURE. 


54  WILSON'S   PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

take  rather  of  the  grotesque,  sometimes,  but  such  are  believed  to  be 
most  easily  remembered.     They  are  all  impressive  works  of  art. 

64.  CIRCULAR  COMPOSITION. — Having  now  endeavored  to  explain  and 
illustrate  the  angular  and  pyramidal  forms  of  composition,  it  is  desired 
to  draw  your  attention  to  the  circular  form.     It  will  be  found  the  style 
of  composition  to  some  extent  applicable  to  photography — particularly  iu 
grouping.     Before  attending  to  the  examples  given  below,  note,  for  your 
guidance,  a  few  things  which  it  is  necessary  to  attend  to  when  grouping. 

65.  The  story  must  be  well  told;  that  is,  one  figure  must  be  so  linked 
to  the  other  that  the  spectator  has  little  or  no  difficulty  in  discerning  the 
purpose  or  designs  of  the  photographer;  see  that  the  parts  assigned  to  each 
figure  be  appropriate  and  natural ;  that  the  general  outline  be  graceful 
and  pleasant  to  look  on ;  that  the  grouping  affords  an  opportunity  for  a 
judicious  arrangement  of  light  and  shade  ;  and  not  only  should  the  lines 
of  the  group  so  run  that  the  eye  is  led  to  the  principal  figure  or  figures 
composing  it,  but  the  principal  focus  of  light  should  also  be  so  managed 
as  to  assist  in  doing  this  (see  Fig.  19).     Use  all  the  appliances  at  your 
disposal  to  reach  the  highest  point  of  excellence;  and,  to  those  who  have 
not  yet  tried  a  camera  with  a  swing-back,  be  it  said,  if  you  can  afford  it, 
by  all  means  get  one,  and  see  that  the  arrangement  is  such  as  to  swing 
both  horizontally  and  perpendicularly. 

66.  To  succeed  in  photographing  groups,  the  photographer  must  not 
only  possess  quickness  of  perception,  but  promptness  in  decision,  and 

65.  The  art  of  posing  (for  it  is  an  art)  should  be  studied  by  photographers  as  carefully  as 
any  other  part  of  their  business,  as  in  this  direction  lie  important  aids  to  success.     G-entlemen , 
look  into  and  study  this  subject.    Discard  the  methods  so  long  in  use  which  have  led  to  the  say- 
ing, "As  stiff  as  a  photograph."     It  is  too  horrible  for  you  to  go  on  putting  people  into  stocks 
and  pillories,  and  then  making  pictures  of  them  in  their  torture.    "What  will  our  grandchildren 
say  when  they  see  the  cast-iron  appearance  you  give  to  your  subjects  ;  and  while  you  are  about 
it,  carry  your  studies  still  further  into  the  realms  of  grouping.     You  know  that  composition 
pictures  are  always  attractive,  but  when  made  by  a  single  exposure  the  imperfections  are  sc 
prominent  that  no  one  is  satisfied.     Now,  to  try  this  plan.     "When  the  skies  are  leaden  and 
the  streets  sloppy,  and  no  one  thinks  of  going  to  your  rooms,  then  get  up  your  designs,  remem- 
bering, above  all  things,  the  necessity  of  correct  perspective ;  call  in  a  few  friends,  one  by 
one,  as  you  have  leisure,  put  them  in  position,  and  get  up  your  specimen.     You  will  find  that 
the  consciousness  of  being  in  a  position  that  means  something  will  take  away  the  statue  ex- 
pression every  one  assumes  when  a  camera  is  pointed  at  them. — W.  D.  GATCHEL. 

66.  In  making  the  sitting,  study  your  subject  well  in  all  the  different  views  ;  make  up  your 
mind  which  is  best,  or  will  harmonize  best  with  your  sitter's  taste  ;  stick  to  that  position 
until  you  get  a  satisfactory  negative.     However,  should  you  have  several  negatives,  and  are 


TKEATMENT    OF    THE    SUBJECT.  55 

that  in  a  very  marked  degree,  for,  while  these  qualities  are  required  in 
the  posing  and  arranging  of  single  figures,  the  difficulties  to  be  over- 
come are  tenfold  when  you  have  to  compose  and  arrange  a  group,  even 
of  three  or  four  figures,  for  it  must  he  remembered  that  not  many  minutes 
often  intervene  between  the  conception  and  the  completion  of  the  work. 
To  succeed,  then,  all  the  powers  of  the  mind  and  the  eye  must  be  put  forth, 
and  that  with  an  energy  that  many  do  not  understand.  The  painter,  in 
composing,  has  more  leisure  to  arrange,  complete,  and  perfect  his  ideas; 
nor  is  he  so  tied  down  as  to  depth  of  focus,  etc. 

67.  But  do  not  entertain  the  idea,  that  all  the  advantages  are  on  his 
side.     The  rapidity  of  production  which  the  camera  affords,  if  properly 
used,  is  a  very  powerful  means  of  educating — the  work,  good  or  bad,  is 
at  once  before  us  to  study — and,  by  studying,  we  can  see  many  of  our 
faults,  and  discern  points  of  excellence,  which  the  careful  photographer 
stores  for  future  use ;   and  many  of  the  mechanical  difficulties,  when 
earnestly  grappled  with,  give  way  to  our  will.     It  is  hoped  that  not  a  few 
of  those  who  have  given  this  subject  their  careful  study,  will  find  help  to 
a  quick  perception  of  what  is  good  or  bad,  and  be  enabled  to  promptly 
decide  on  what  to  accept  or  reject. 

68.  Some  hastily  reject  all  rules,  and  consider  them  only  a  hindrance 
to  their  progress  in  art,  because  men  have  arisen,  from  time  to  time, 
whose  works  were  formed  by  no  rule,  yet  became  a  model  and  a  rule  to 
other  men.     Still,  as  Professor  Sedgewick  has  remarked,  "  Few,  however, 

in  doubt  as  to  which  is  best,  prove  them  all,  and  then  make  the  selection  yourself,  and  show 
only  one.  If,  however,  your  customer  is  not  pleased,  you  can  then  bring  forward  the  others, 
if  you  think  there  is  anything  in  them  to  remedy  the  difficulty. — F.  B.  CLENCH. 

67.  Make  your  sitter  at  ease  with  himself,  draw  out  his  finer  feelings,  and,  if  possible,  bring 
all  that  is  good  and  noble  within  him  to  the  surface,  and  being  prepared,  your  light  in  har- 
mony, watch  and  catch  the  right  expression.     As  a  photographer  you  may  be  ashamed  of 
the  resulting  picture,  but  you  have  reflected  from  that  face  the  soul  and  beauty  within. — 
ALEXANDER  HESLER. 

68.  Now,  no  doubt,  it  is  well  to  be  humble.     The  first  test  of  a  great  man  is  his  humility; 
but  I  do  not  mean,  by  humility,  doubt  of  his  own  power,  or  hesitation  in  speaking  of  his 
opinions,  but  a  right  understanding  of  the  relation  between  what,  Tie  can  do  and  say  and  the 
rest  of  the  world's  sayings  and  doings.     All  great  men  not  only  know  their  business,  but 
usually  know  that  they  know  it;  and  are  not  only  right  in  their  main  opinions,  but  they 
usually  know  that  they  are  right  in  them  ;  only  they  do  not  think  much  of  themselves  on 
that  account.     Arnolfi  knows  that  he  can  build  a  good  dome  at  Florence ;  Albert  Durer 
writes  calmly  to  one  who  finds  fault  with  his  work,  "  It  cannot  be  better  done;"  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  knows  that  he  has  worked  out  a  problem  or  two  that  would  have  puzzled  any  one 


56 


WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 


FIG.  22. 


among  us  are  permitted  to  show  this  high  excellence ;  ordinary  minds 
must  be  content  to  learn  by  rules,  and  every  good  system  must  have  ref- 
erence to  the  many  and  not  the  few."  We  have  undoubted  authority  in 
the  example  of  the  great  Raphael  for  being  humble  and  apt  to  learn. 

69.  The  accompanying  wood-cut  is  a  copy  of  one  of  Raphael's  draw- 
ings, at  the  margin  of  which  is  the  following  memorandum  :  "  It  is  to  be 

observed  that  the  first  thing  to  be  con- 
sidered in  an  historical  composition, 
is  where  the  point  (that  is  the  specta- 
tor's eye)  is  to  be  placed,  whether  in 
the  middle  of  the  work  or  on  one  side, 
and  so  to  determine  its  situation  that 
the  important  figures  be  distinctly 
visible,  not  concealed  by  others;  and 
then  begin  the  design.  It  is  my  opin- 
ion, confirmed  by  the  practice  of  the 
most  skilful  men,  that  the  mode  ex- 
plained by  a  drawing  in  the  margin  is 
generally  fittest;  viz.,  by  contriving 
that  those  figures  which  are  nearest 
to  the  point  should  present  their  back, 
those  furthest  removed,  their  sides, 

and  so  on  in  perspective ;  as  if  a  circle  were  drawn  and  figures  were  ar- 
ranged around  it,  so  should  an  historical  composition." 

70.  The  student  is  again  referred  to  the  engravings,  which  are  now  so 

else  ;  only  they  do  not  expect  their  fellow-men  to  fall  down  and  worship  them.  They  have  a 
curious  under-sense  of  powerlessness,  feeling  that  the  greatness  is  not  in  them,  but  through 
them  ;  that  they  could  not  do  or  be  anything  else  than  God  made  them,  and  they  see  some- 
thing divine  and  God-made  in  every  other  man  they  meet,  and  are  endlessly,  foolishly,  and 
incredibly  merciful. — JOHN  RUSKIN. 

69.  Figures  should  be  more  or  less  varied  in  attitude,  because  an  exact  repetition  of  lines 
produces  formality.     The  manner  and  extent  of  variation  must  be  decided  by  the  subject. 
They  must  also  vary  in  regard  to  prominence.     The  artist  who  represents  all  the  figures  in- 
troduced in  his  picture  as   holding    the  same   rank,  making  each  one  equally  prominent, 
understands  nothing  of  the  principles  of  nature  or  the  laws  of  art.     The  same  artist  will, 
with  great  labor,  bring  forward  on  his  canvas  the  most  insignificant  objects  ;  for  trivial  minds 
ever  value  trivial  things. — M.  A.  DWIGHT. 

70.  Experience  tells  me  the  best  way  to  "elevate  our  art"  is  for  each  one  to  do  the  very 
best  work  he  can  under  all  circumstances,  and  let  our  customers  know  something  of  the  work 
and  expense  needed  to  attain  the  end  desired;  and  the  better  they  understand  the  intricacies 


TKEATMENT    OF    THE   SUBJECT.  57 

easily  accessible,  for  further  studies  in  this  form  of  composition.  It  is 
not  needful  to  multiply  them  here,  since  enough  has  already  been  said 
to  give  you  a  clear  insight  into  the  matter,  with  the  hope,  too,  that  you 
are  fully  interested  enough  to  pursue  it  and  profit  by  it  largely.  The. 
circular  form  in  its  internal  lines  also  requires  the  use  of  the  angular 
and  pyramidal  in  the  arrangement  of  its  parts.  They  always  come  into 
play — are  always  useful  in  the  great  work  of  elevating  our  art. 

71.  Much  has  been  written,  and  very  properly,  too,  on  the  best  method 
of  constructing  the  glass-house  or   photographic  atelier,  and  doubtless 
the  papers  which  have  appeared  on  the  subject  have  been  of  good  ser- 
vice to  many.     But  it  is  believed  the  subject  about  to  be  treated  is  one 
of  graver  importance ;  the  former  being  the  means  to  the  end,  while  the 
present  topic  is  the  end  or  purpose  itself,  viz.,  chiaro-oscuro,  or  light  and 
shade ;  and  it  is  affirmed  that  if  the  recognized  principles  of  light  and 
shade,  as  applied  in  art,  were  more  fully  understood  by  photographers, 
there  would  be  much  less  information  required  on  how  to  construct  a 
light,  for  knowing  how  to  use  it  would  solve  many  a  difficulty. 

72.  Let  the  light  be  ever  so  perfectly  arranged,  it  must,  of  neces- 

of  the  art  the  more  it  will  be  appreciated  ;  and  a  picture  that  is  well  paid  for  is  treasured  far 
more,  and  its  good  qualities  more  apparent,  than  when  a  few  cents  will  purchase  a  peck  or 
less.  People  always  appreciate  anything  according  to  its  cost,  nc  matter  what  it  is. — MRS. 
E.  N.  LOCKWOOD. 

71.  On  the  proper  management  of  his  light  depends  the  chief  success  of  the  photographer. 
This  is  the  most  difficult  part  of  the  art  to  learn,  because  no  absolute  rules  or  exact  formulae 
can  be  laid  down.     It  is  as  well  it  should  be  so,  as  each  one  who  studies  to  light  his  pictures 
artistically  is  certain  to  receive  his  immediate  reward  by  the  superior  results  he  will  produce. 
Mere  mechanical  skill  is  easily  acquired ;  but  artistic  excellence  is  only  secured  by  a  study 
of  the  conditions  of  light  and  shade. 

The  first  thing  a  photographer  has  to  learn  on  this  subject  is  that  no  reliance  whatever  is 
to  be  placed  on  lens,  camera,  and  chemicals.  These,  valuable  enough  in  their  places,  can 
teach  him  nothing  here.  He  must  go  to  the  fountain-head — light  itself.  Whatever  light 
falls  on,  it  enlightens,  whitens.  White  is  the  representative  of  light;  black  that  of  dark- 
ness. If  an  object  be  wished  to  be  represented  white,  it  must  be  placed  in  the  light ;  if  black, 
the  light  must  be  excluded  from  it ;  if  partially  white  and  partially  black,  the  light  must  be 
so  allowed  to  fall  on  it  that  while  the  parts  that  are  to  be  represented  white  must  be  illumi- 
nated, the  others  that  are  to  be  black  must  be  protected  from  illumination.  If  the  object  is 
to  be  represented  as  being  neither  white  nor  black,  but  of  some  of  the  manifold  gradations 
that  separate  the  two,  then  the  object  must  be  so  illuminated  that  just  such  amount  of  light 
and  shade  falls  on  it  as  represents  the  desired  tint. — JABEZ  HUGHES. 

72.  We  are  here  reminded  of  a  passage  in  Buskin's  Modern  Painters,  wherein  he  observes: 
"  When  the  eye  is  quite  uncultivated,  it  sees  that  a  man  is  a  man  and  a  face  is  a  face,  but  has 
no  idea  what  shadows  or  light  fall  upon  the  form  or  features.     Cultivate  it  to  some  degree 


58  WILSON'S    PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

sity,  vary  with  the  season  or  the  day,  and  still  more,  different  models 
require  different  arrangements  of  light  and  shade.  The  subject  is  one 
deserving  of  deepest  study,  and  those  who  know  most  will  assuredly 
seek  for  a  hetter  acquaintance  still  with  its  suhtle  gradations. 

73.  This  rendering  of  light  within  light  and  shadow  within  shadow, 
is  peculiarly  the  province  of  photography,  and  there  is  no  branch  of  the 
art  that  affords  more  scope  for  constant  study. 

74.  The  first  thing  to  be  noticed  is,  that  when  the  sun  is  abroad  in  a 
landscape,  the  most  characteristic  feature  to  be  observed  is  the  decided, 
sharp,  well-defined  shadows,  and  in  proportion  as  the  objects  are  brill- 
iantly lit,  in  like  proportion  will  it  be  found  that  the  shadows  from  them 
are  deep  and  intense,  and  throughout  the  whole  this  last  will  be  found 
to  be  observed  in  beautiful  harmony,  giving  here  brightness  and  preci- 
sion, and  there  softness  and  delicacy,  while  in  every  direction  an  endless 
variety  pervades,  giving  a  charm  indefinable  by  words.     Also  observe 
that  in  bright  light   and    deep  shadows   the  texture  or  detail  is  very 
limited,  and  that  in  nature  neither  bright  light  nor  deep  shade  is  to  be 
found  in  large  masses,  but  rather  in  points. 

75.  Where  there  is  a  large  mass  of  light,  either  in  sky  or  water,  it  will 

of  artistic  power,  and  it  will  then  see  shadows  distinctly,  but  only  the  more  vigorous  of  them. 
Cultivate  it  still  further,  and  it  will  see  light  within  light  and  shadow  within  shadow,  and 
will  continually  refuse  to  rest  in  what  it  had  already  discovered,  that  it  may  pursue  what  is 
more  removed  and  subtle,  until  at  last  it  comes  to  give  its  chief  attention,  and  display  its 
chief  power  on  gradations,  which,  to  an  untrained  faculty,  are  partly  matters  of  indifference 
and  partly  imperceptible." 

73.  Now,  what  is  lighting  ?     You  take  a  common  watering-pot  and  remove  the  rose,  and 
the  stream  of  water  goes  out  in  a  body.     You  put  on  the  rose,  and  it  causes  the  water  to 
flow  in  little  streams  and  scatters  it.     The  same  effect  is  produced  on  the  light  coming 
through  the  atmosphere ;  the  atmosphere  divides  it,  scatters  it,  diffuses  it.     We  take  a  rod 
and  strike  the  surface  of  water   gently,  and   we  drive   the   water   in   all   directions,   or 
according  to  the  direction  of  the  blow.     So  it  is  with  light.     It  comes  through  a  steep  sky- 
light, and  it  has  to  pass  through  the  atmosphere  to  get  to  the  subject,  and  the  further  it  falls 
the  more  it  is  diffused. — A  VOICE  AT  THE  BUFFALO  CONVENTION,  1873. 

74.  What  is  the  philosophy  of  arranging  a  face  under  the  light?     What  is  the  first  thing 
to  be  done  ?     The  first  thing  is  to  admit  as  much  diffused  light  over  the  whole  face  as  you 
can:  I  will  say  pretty  near  as  much  as  the  eye  will  open  and  shut  comfortably  in,  as  will 
not  affect  the  eye  at  all,  or  oblige  you  to  close  it.     So  that  you  can  open  the  eye  naturally ; 
so  that  it  shall  not  make  you  blink  or  want  to  look  down.     You  want  a  light  that  will  be 
diffused  over  the  whole  face  and  figure. — A.  S.  SOUTHWORTH. 

75.  A  few  questions :  How  do  we  recognize  brilliancy  in  a  photograph  ?     Answer.     By 
the  contrast  of  light  and  shade.     How  do  we  recognize  softness  and  delicacy  in  the  same  ? 


TKEATMENT    OF   THE    SUBJECT.  59 

V^\  ^'-.A^\  j 

be  found  secondary  to  some  brighter  light,  such  as  the  bright  edge  of 
a  dark  cloud  in  the  sky,  the  glancing  wave  on  the  sea,  or  the  white  sail 
of  a  boat;  and,  whatever  may  be  the  means  used  by  nature,  it  will  be 
found  small  in  proportion  to  its  brilliancy,  and  by  its  brilliancy  it  will 
give  to  these  larger  masses  of  light  the  effect  of  half-tone  by  comparison. 
Also  notice  that  the  highest  lights  and  deepest  darks  are  generally  found 
in  nature  side  by  side — the  dark  giving  brilliancy  to  the  light,  the  light 
intensity  to  the  dark.  And  again,  we  find  when  the  sun  is  veiled  and 
the  light  soft,  and  a  half-tone  pervades  the  face  of  nature,  some  sombre 
pine  or  overhanging  rock  will  give  the  deepest  shade — a  small  break 
in  the  sky,  the  highest  light. 

76.  What  can  be  more  magnificent  in  light  and  shade  than  when, 
after  rain,  a  stream  of  light  shoots  forth  from  the  hidden  sun  and  illu- 
mines, as  if  striving  after  effect,  a  selected  spot  of  verdant  field  or  wooded 
brake  glistening  with  moisture  and  refulgent  with  color ;  or,  when  it 
selects  the  white  sail  of  a  distant  vessel,  or  the  beach  of  an  opposite 

Answer.  By  the  harmony  of  the  light  and  shade  therein  displayed.  Let  every  one  strive 
to  attain  a  medium  between  the  two,  and  the  result  will  be  satisfying  to  any  one.  You  ask, 
how  to  set  about  it?  Screen  your  skylight,  and  cut  off  by  curtains  all  the  superfluous  light, 
leaving  only  enough  to  properly  light  the  sitter;  suitably  contrast  the  dress  and  com- 
plexion with  the  right  shade  of  background,  and  you  will,  by  the  proper  strength  of 
developer  and  correct  timing,  get  all  the  intensity  you  desire.  By  hanging  your  plain, 
ordinar}1"  background  on  a  pivot,  and  tilting  it,  you  can  have  a  different  shade  every  time, 
suiting  the  most  exacting  sitter. — C.  A.  ZIMMERMAN. 

76.  The  grand  point,  for  those  who  have  not  paid  sufficient  attention  to  this  most  important 
of  photographic  questions,  is  to  accustom  the  eye  to  constant  watching — out  of  the  studio  as 
well  as  in  it — for  any  unusual  effect  of  light  on  the  human  face  which  may  happen  to  be 
pleasing,  and  at  once  to  analyze,  as  far  as  possible,  the  cause.  I  shall  best  further  my  object, 
before  I  speak  of  special  studio  arrangements,  by  describing  two  extremes  of  light,  one 
favoring  perfect  relief,  but  with  contrasts  too  strong  for  general  photographic  purposes,  and 
the  other — unfortunately  too  common  amongst  photographers — producing  flatness  and 
almost  total  absence  of  texture.  By  putting  these  two  extremes  side  by  side,  I  shall  the 
more  readily  make  clear  what  I  desire  to  say.  Those  who  have  been  in  the  studio  of  the 
sculptor  for  the  first  time,  will  have  been  struck  by  the  wonderful  delicacy  and  relief  of  any 
work  in  marble  which  may  happen  to  be  in  hand.  Should  his  curiosity  lead  him  to  watch 
the  effect  of  the  same  kind  of  light  on  the  human  head  and  bust,  he  will  be  equally  delighted 
with  the  novel  effect  of  light  and  shade  before  him.  He  will  notice  a  delicacy  and  texture 
quite  unusual  in  ordinary  lights,  combined  with  the  most  perfect  relief.  The  whole  effect 
will  be  more  striking  and  forcible ;  but  after  some  time  spent  in  close  observation,  he 
will  find,  that  whilst  the  high-lights  and  those  next  approaching  to  them  are  wonderfully 
rendered,  the  deepest  shadows  and  those  allied  to  them  are  much  too  heavy  for  photographic 
purposes.  The  observer  will  feel  less  of  this,  however,  if  the  subject  examined  should  hap- 


60 


WILSON'S   PHOTOGKAPHICS. 


shore ;  or,  as  all  have  often  seen,  and.  wondered  at  its  constant  choice, 
the  whitened  walls  of  distant  villages  ?  In  these  two  moods  of  nature,  as 
it  were,  may  be  found  the  true  foundation  for  all  authentic  principles  in 
art.  And  the  painter  or  photographer  will  select  the  mood  most  suited 
Fir,.  23.  to  his  subject,  and,  like  the  writer  of 

history  or  romance,  he  will  use  his 
highest  powers,  his  brightest  light, 
or  deepest  shadow,  or  both,  to  give 
full  prominence  to  the  leading  point, 
judiciously  obscuring  others. 

77.  In  the  foregoing  remarks,  your 
attention  has  been  drawn  outside  the 
studio,  and  to  many  this  may  seem 
of  little  practical  value  as  regards 
their  every-day  work.  But  it  is  not 
so,  for  the  same  principle  prevails 
both  within  and  without.  As  a  par- 
tial proof  of  this  truth,  witness  this 
line  copy  of  "  The  Soldier  and  the 
Laughing  Girl,"  by  J.  Van  der  Meer, 
of  Delft,  now  in  the  Double  Collection  of  Paris.  It  is  a  grand  study  in 

pen  to  be  a  blonde  dressed  in  light  drapery.  A  little  investigation  will,  therefore,  show  that 
the  marble,  being  a  semi-transparent  substance,  permits — indeed  requires — this  strong  treat- 
ment, in  order  to  produce  the  proper  amount  of  relief,  and  that,  in  the  case  of  the  blonde 
with  the  drapery  light  in  color,  the  shadows  are  softened  by  the  reflections  carried  into  them, 
and  thus  reducing  their  intensity.  Every  one  must  at  some  time  or  other  have  been  struck 
with  the  wonderful  effect  of  relief,  combined  with  perfect  transparency  in  the'half-shadows, 
when  a  lady  dressed  in  very  light  diaphanous  material  has  chanced  to  be  placed  near  an 
open  window  in  a  well-lit  room.  The  eifect  is  totally  different  if  a  swarthy,  black-bearded 
man,  in  the  mournful  livery  common  to  this  age,  should  happen  to  be  seen  under  precisely 
similar  circumstances.  In  the  latter  case  there  are  no  reflections  to  help  out  the  effect; 
hence  the  difference.  I  may  say  here,  that  the  most  perfect  effects  of  lighting  I  have  ever 
seen  have  been  produced  at  a  lofty  side-window,  the  lower  portion  of  which  was  covered, 
with  a  semi-transparent  material,  a  suitable  system  of  reflectors  being  used  to  carry  light 
into  the  deepest  shadows  to  lessen  the  contrast. — VALENTINE  BLANCHARD. 

77.  As  to  the  study  of  light,  I  follow  it  intuitively.  I  find  my  models  everywhere,  in  par- 
lors, halls,  churches,  offices,  shops,  railway  cars ;  wherever  there  are  windows  or  gas-jets,  and 
heads  for  the  light  to  shine  upon,  there  are  my  studies — sometimes  more,  sometimes  less  inter- 
esting, but  studied  all  the  same.  Frequently  in  common  conversation,  or  in  the  course  of  a 
business  transaction,  I  give  as  much  attention  to  lighting  the  head  of  my  model  as  I  do  to 
the  drift  of  his  talk  or  the  character  of  the  business  in  hand.  "We  may  be  introduced  to  a 


TREATMENT   OF    THE   SUBJECT.  01 

chiaro-oscuro,  a  model  for  photographic  imitation,  and  seems  to  have 
l}een  made  for  this  very  purpose.  It  will  bear  the  closest  studv. 

78.  It  is  also  a  fact,  that  in  photographic  portraiture  it  is  not  consid- 
ered desirable  to  illuminate  the  sitter  with  direct  sunlight,  but,  if  we 
wish  to  produce  the  broad,  open  effect  of  daylight,  with  well  defined 
and  equally  illuminated  line,  we  must  use  a  broad,  open,  well  diffused 
light,  so  arranging  the  drapery  of  figure  and  accessories  that  we  obtain 
enough  of  sharp  and  well-defined  shadows  to  give  the  necessary  pith  and 
precision  to  the  whole. 

79.  Careful  attention  to  this  point  will  give  a  much  greater  effect  of 
brilliancy  and  light  than  any  amount  of  over-intensifying.     Again,  if  we 
wish  to  produce  those  effects  which  might  be  styled  a  la  Rembrandt,  we 
must  use  a  more  direct,  concentrated  light,  and  so  arranging  the  figure 
or  sitter  that  the  light  falls  upon  and  fully  illumines  the  portion  of  the 
figure  we  wish  to  give  the  greatest  prominence,  allowing  the  other  parts, 
both  of  the  form  and  outline,  to  be  partially  lost  in  shade.     Do  not  mis- 
understand, blackness  is  not  meant.     By  this  means  of  lighting  some 

stranger,  and  while  assuring  him  of  the  pleasure  we  have  found  in  his  acquaintance,  and 
wondering  if  it  will  rain  before  night,  we  have  discovered  that  his  nose  is  a  little  out  of  true, 
and  that  a  three-fourths  face,  away  from  the  light,  will  suit  him  best. 

In  this  study  or  pursuit  much  is  to  be  gained.  We  learn  to  recognize  the  true  from  the 
false,  the  good  from  the  bad.  An  education  may  be  so  acquired  that  would  be  obtained  in 
no  other  way.  We  see  and  fix  in  the  mind  many  peculiarities  and  effects  of  light  that  by 
accumulation  become  knowledge.  There  may  be  a  lesson  in  the  shadow  thrown  from  a 
hitching-post,  if  we  look  for  it,  as  much  as  there  are  "  sermons  in  stones." 

These  hints  and  bits  of  observation,  picked  up  in  promiscuous  ways  and  places,  carried 
into  the  operating-room,  give  power  to  the  possessor  of  them,  and  make  him  master  of  the 
situation.  When  we  once  get  into  this  way  of  "  trying  on,"  we  are  not  likely  to  abandon 
the  habit. — J.  F.  RYDER. 

78.  Place  the  sitter  so  the  light  is  diffused.     I  open  the  light  for  forty-five  degrees  usually. 
Why  use  that  angle  ?     Why  not  straight  up  over-head  ?     The  reason  is,  that  I  want  to  show 
the  lines  of  the  brow,  the  lines  of  the  nostrils.     I  want  to  show  the  shadow  falling  off  to 
this  direction  so  as  to  give  the  shape  of  the  nostrils.     I  do  not  want  to  show  it  as  if  I  were 
standing  under  you  and  looking  up  into  your  nose.     I  do  not  want  to  throw  a  shadow  on  the 
noblest  part  of  the  human  countenance. — A.  S.  SOUTHWORTH. 

79.  In  these  likenesses  there  is  no  striving  for  any  transitory  effect.     No  part  of  the  face 
or  head  is  put  in  deep  shadow,  all  is  clear  and  sunny.     There  is  no  flinching  from  hard  work. 
Wherever  shadow  is  used,  the  modelling  is  continued  perfectly  throughout  the  whole.     In 
the  best  faces  of  Titian  no  shadow  is  apparent,  yet  there  is  no  flatness ;  they  are  full  and 
round,  like  nature  herself.     And  some  of  the  best  heads  of  Rembrandt,  fond  as  he  was  of 
shadow  tricks,  are  painted  in  this  broad  and  sunny  way.     These  great  artists  studied  to  give 
the  sum  of  human  life — not  five  minutes  of  it. — CHARLES  AKERS. 


62  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

very  grand  effects  are  produced.  Many  have  supposed,  however,  that  this, 
style  is  conventional  and  unreal.  Such  is  not  the  case,  for  the  same  effect 
may  be  seen  in  any  apartment  which  is  but  partially  illuminated,  whether 
by  artificial  means,  or  by  the  opening  by  which  the  daylight  enters  being 
small  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  apartment.  Both  ways  are  correct 
in  principle  and  equally  good  if  suited  to  the  subject;  the  former  will  be 
found  most  serviceable  for  general  use,  and  may  be  considered  as  nature's 
sunshine,  while  the  latter  may  be  appreciated  as  we  do  nature  in  her 
grander  moods,  as  in  the  coming  storm  or  the  play  of  the  forked  lightning. 

80.  If  you  are  a  landscape  photographer,  having  selected  your  point, 
the  proper  time  of  day  to  give  the  best  effect  of  light  and  shade,  look 
closely  into  nature,  mentally  note  down  its  most  observable  peculiarities, 
and  when  you  have  completed  your  negative  and  printed  from  it,  com- 
pare notes,  those  mentally  taken  and   those  in  the  photograph  before 
you ;  find  out  what  of  nature's  beauty  you  have  caught,  and  where  you 
have  fallen  short.     Do  not  be  content  with  the  fact  that  you  have  ob- 
tained a  passable,  nay,  a  good  picture,  for  by  such  close  observation  you 
will  acquire  a  better  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  nature,  discover  the  weak 
and  the  strong  points  of  photography,  and  thus  be  able,  as  experience 
ripens  and  increases,  to  assist  the  former  and  make  good  use  of  the  latter. 

81.  If  you  are  a  portrait  photographer,  do  not  be  content  with  having 
your  light  built  and  arranged  on  the  same  principle  as  an  adored  model 

80.  Among  some  photographers  the  impression  seems  to  prevail  that  the  reflection  of  the 
image  upon  the  object-glass  is  to  be  depended  upon  exclusively  in  judging  of  the  proper 
lighting.     Let  me  state  that  these  glasses  are  great  flatterers  and  deceivers,  as  negatives  fre- 
quently testify  when  left  to  them.    Should  you  be  using  a  number  of  instruments,  the  chances 
are  the  color  of  each  glass  is  different,  which  makes  them  still  less  reliable  as  guides.     Trust 
your  eyes  in  arranging  your  lights,  and  when  once  accustomed  to  the  manipulations  in  that 
particular,  you  will  prove  yourself  competent  in  your  position,  and  have  secured  much  that 
is  all-important  to  success  in  your  profession. — A.  SIMSON. 

81.  There  is  no  part  of  the  human  face  that  should  be  represented  in  a  portrait  as  white. 
There  may  and  must  be  parts  that  are  lighter,  but  these  parts  should  never  be  white.     The 
whole  face  should  be  shaded,  while  the  most  prominent  points,  such  as  the  nose,  brows, 
chin,  etc.,  should  be  touched  with  light.     The  retiring  parts  of  the  face  must  be  shaded 
more  and  more  as  they  retire,  but  care  must  be  taken  that  they  become  not  too  dark  and 
lose  definition.     As  a  general  thing,  too  much  light  is  used  (I  suppose  for  the  purpose  of 
shortening  the  exposure) ;  but  this  is  an  erroneous  idea.     The  light  should  come  from  one 
direction,  and  more  from  one  side  than  the  other. 

There  are  three  kinds  or  qualities  of  light  used  in  portrait  photography,  viz.,  diffused, 
direct,  and  reflected.     Of  these  three,  diffused  light  bears  the  most  important  part,  and  is 


TREATMENT    OF    THE    SUBJECT.  63 

of  yours,  who  produces  pictures  worthy  of  the  art ;  and  having  found 
out  that  on  a  certain  day  and  on  a  certain  spot,  under  such  a  light,  you 
have  produced  a  photograph  as  good  or  "better  than  your  neighbor,  that 
from  henceforth  that  is  the  spot,  and  that  on  that  spot  every  future  sitter 
must  be  placed,  irrespective  of  age,  form,  or  feature,  or  color  of  dress. 
No ;  on  the  contrary,  carefully  select  the  best  situation  and  arrange  the 
lighting,  having  a  keen,  quick  eye  to  its  adaptability  to  bring  out  the 
points,  losing  the  others  in  the  shade,  and,  while  the  general  effect  of 
the  whole  is  seen  to,  do  not  lose  sight  of  the  tender  variety  of  lights 
within  lights  and  shade  within  shade ;  and  when  you  have  given  atten- 
tion to  all  this,  in  the  posing  and  arranging,  observe  that  the  effects  thus 
far  sought  for  are  not  lost  by  a  wrong  exposure,  or  by  under-  or  over- 
developing. Be  fully  assured  that  if  you  do  not  habitually  accustom 
yourself  to  look  for  these  finer  and  more  subtle  gradations  of  light  and 
shade,  and  use  your  highest  powers  to  secure  them,  your  works  will 
neither  be  a  credit  to  yourself  nor  to  the  art. 

82.  Having  now  tried  to  explain  the  value  of  a  knowledge  of  chiaro- 
oscuro,  or  light  and  shade,  to  the  photographer,  and  to  urge  the  import- 
ance of  the  study  thereof,  it  is  in  order  to  proceed  to  investigate  this 
principle  in  its  various  situations.  But,  before  doing  so,  please  to  notice 
a  few  of  the  more  palpable  and  self-evident  combinations.  Do  not  neg- 
lect these  important  points.  They  may  be  divided  into  five  parts,  viz. : 
light,  half-light,  middle-tint,  half-dark,  and  dark.  These  are  the  five  grand 
points  of  the  subject  now  to  be  studied.  In  beginning  any  work  we 
should  know  which  one  we  desire  to  secure,  and  work  and  arrange  accord- 

the  one  used  in  the  largest  quantity  ;  reflected  light,  the  one  used  least.  A  diffusion  of  light, 
however,  over  the  whole  face  would  render  it  flat,  and  with  a  lack  of  vigor.  Direct  light 
now  comes  to  our  assistance,  and  by  a  judicious  use  in  small  quantity  lights  up  the  prominent 
parts  of  the  face,  rendering  the  whole  image  bold  and  vigorous ;  and  it  is  sometimes  the 
case  that  a  little  reflected  light  may  be  used  with  advantage,  but  should  be  used  judiciously, 
— FRANK  JEWELL. 

82.  My  reading  and  my  observation  amount  to  simply  this :  Have  a  room  where  you 
can  control  your  light  thoroughly  and  perfectly.  Have  a  room  where  you  can  give  as  much 
diffused  light  on  the  face,  without  making  it  one  particle  more  on  one  side  than  on  the 
other  than  the  eye  can  bear  comfortably;  then  grade  it.  Then  open  your  sky-light  just  as 
you  want  it,  to  give  the  right  light  on  the  nose  and  forehead,-  giving  the  shadows  as  they 
ought  to  come,  and  you  have  your  light  right  for  the  subject;  and  for  the  different  lights, 
change  your  subject  around  the  room,  and  if  the  nose  happens  to  be  a  short  one,  you  have 
got  to  manage  it,  or  if  it  is  very  long,  and  if  there  are  wrinkles  your  diffused  light  lights 
them  up.— A.  S.  SOUTHWORTH. 


64  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

ingly.     After  the  work  is  done  it  should  then  be  compared  with  what 
it  was  intended  to  produce,  and  see  how  far  success  has  been  attained. 

83.  When  the  picture  is  composed  of  light  and  half-light  chiefly,  the 
darks  will  have  more  force  and  point,  but  the  picture  will  look  feeble  and 
weak,  to  use  a  common  term.     When  it  is  composed  mainly  of  dark  and 
half-dark,  the  lights  will  be  more  brilliant,  but  they  will  be  apt  to  look 
spotty  for  want  of  half-light  to  spread  and  connect  them,  and  the  picture 
will  be  in  danger  of  becoming  black  and  heavy ;    and  when  the  pic- 
ture is  composed  chiefly  of  the  middle-tint,  the  dark  and  light  portions 
would  have  a  more  equal  chance  of  coming  into  notice,  but  the  general 
effect  is  in  danger  of  being  insipid  and  common.     This  will  be  more 
fully  understood  if  the  operator  will  take  examples  of  his  own  or  other 
work,  lighted  differently,  and  carefully  study  the  effects  mentioned,  so 
far  as  the  pictures  will  permit. 

84.  The  results  which  light  and  shade  may  produce  are  very  many, 
but  the  principal  ones  generally  sought  for  are  relief,  harmony,  and  breadth. 
By  the  first  we  are  enabled,  so  far  as  the  camera,  lens,  etc.,  will  allow,  to 
give  the  distinctness  and  solidity  of  nature,  i.  e.,  so  near  as  we  can,  a 
stereoscopic  effect  to  our  pictures.     The  second  is  the  result  of  a  union 
and  consent  of  one  part  with  another;  and  the  third,  a  general  breadth, 
gives  the  idea  of  extent  and  magnitude.     Now,  these  three  properties  should 
employ  the  careful  and  most  attentive  examination  of  every  one  who  de- 

83.  Perhaps,  among  beginners,  there  is  no  more  common  error  than  the  employment  of 
too  much  light.     The  natural  instinct  of  the  artistically  uneducated  mind  seems  to  be  to 
surround  the  sitter  with  light,  to  throw  it  in  on  all  sides,  and  as  much  on  one  side  of  the 
face  as  on  the  other.     How  grave  a  mistake  this  is. — W.  J.  BAKER. 

84.  It  will  be  found  that  whilst  one  operator  rigidly  adheres  to  the  pla&of  contrasting  the 
lighted  side  of  the  figure  against  the  dark  part  of  ground,  another  will  as  uniformly  practise 
the  reverse,  i.  e.,  placing  the  illuminated  side  of  a  face  against  the  light  side  of  the  ground, 
and  the  shadow  side  against  the  darker.     Pictures  in  these  two  styles  will  be  found  most 
numerous.     A  third  party  will,  for  all  kinds  of  subjects,  invariably  use  the  darkest  side 
uppermost,  and  a  fourth  the  lightest.     There  are  subjects  suited  to  all  of  these  plans,  and  it 
often  requires  much  study  a'nd  care*  to  know  which  is  the  proper  one  to  adopt.    Where  the 
operator  is  unable  to  decide  which  is  best,  we  would  advise  an  entirely  plain  background. 

The  principal  objections  to  the  mode  of  operator  No.  1  are,  first,  the  resulting  picture  often 
has  a  cut-up,  patchy  effect,  in  which  the  proper  breadth  of  light  and  shade  for  a  fine  artistic 
effect  are  destroyed.  Second,  a  homely  feature  (or  maybe  a  homely  face)  is  made  too  promi- 
nent, by  contrast  centring  interest  to  that  part.  In  the  pictures  of  No.  2,  breadth  is  secured 
and  a  fine  result  often  obtained,  but  unless  the  subject  is  entirely  suited,  a  plain  ground  would 
be  best.— "PYRO." 


TEEATMENT    OF    THE    SUBJECT.  65 

sires  to  improve;  for,  by  giving  too  much  relief,  a  dry,  hard  effect — cast- 
iron  it  might  he  called — is  produced ;  hy  too  much  softness  and  blending 
of  the  parts,  woolliness  and  insipidity;  and  in  a  desire  to  preserve  a 
breadth  of  effect  there  is  danger  of  producing  flatness. 

RELIEF  is  desirable,  to  a  certain  extent,  in  all  our  productions,  and 
the  larger  the  work  the  more  relief  required ;  but,  as  has  been  said,  we 
should  be  careful  not  to  get  too  much. 

HARMONY  depends  upon  the  intermediate  parts  of  a  picture  serving  as 
a  link  or  chain,  either  by  conveying  a  sensation  of  the  same  light  or 
shade  with  those  in  immediate  contact,  or  by  reducing,  neutralizing,  or 
breaking  down  entirely  the  harsh  asperities  of  the  two  extremes,  and 
thus  producing  a  connection  or  agreement, — a  fallen  tree  leading  across 
the  turbid  stream  from  the  darkness  of  the  wildwood  to  the  bright 
sunshine  on  the  other  side. 

85.  BREADTH  OF  EFFECT  is  only  to  be  produced  by  a  great  extent  of 
light  or  shade  pervading  the  picture.  If  an  open,  daylight  appearance 
is  intended,  it  will  be  best  produced  by  leaving  out  part  of  the  middle- 
tint,  and  allowing  a  greater  spread  of  light  and  half-light;  in  this  way  one 
may  also  give  the  darks  the  relative  forces  which  they  possess  -in  nature. 
If  a  breadth  of  shadow  is  required,  the  picture  ought  to  be  made  up  of 
middle-tint  and  half-dark.  In  the  one  treatment  the  dark  ought  to  tell 
sharp  and  cutting,  which  is  the  characteristic  of  strong  daylight.  In  the 

85.  When  too  much  light  is  reflected  on  the  shaded  side  of  the  face  it  prevents  the 
spectator  from  tracing  the  direction  of  the  principal  illumination,  and,  trivial  as  this  state- 
ment may  seem  to  those  who  have  not  considered  the  subject,  it  involves  the  most  important 
characteristic  of  a  picture,  that  of  unity.  Unity  cannot  be  obtained  without  breadth,  and 
the  quality  of  breadth  is  entirely  dependent  on  the  eye  being  able  to  trace  with  facility  the 
direction  of  the  illuminating  force.  The  idea  is  a  perfectly  natural  one.  The  sun's  rays  at 
any  given  moment  sweep  through  the  entire  landscape,  casting  shadows  in  but  one  and  the 
same  direction,  and  this  is  the  type  of  breadth.  It  establishes,  by  association  and  the  analogy 
of  nature,  a  law  in  our  minds  to  which  all  representations  of  natural  objects  should  con- 
form ;  and  the  simplest  form  of  picture,  that  containing  but  one  object,  as  a  face,  is  just  as 
much  subject  to  this  law  as  the  presentation  of  miles  of  landscape,  with  its  infinite  diversity 
of  objects. 

Very  much  allied  to  the  notions  of  unity  by  breadth  is  that  of  massing  the  light  and 
shade,  keeping  each  in  its  separate  place,  the  lights  on  one  side  of  the  face,  the  shadow  on 
the  other.  The  same  illustrations  which  show  the  first  law  exhibit  the  second.  Where  a 
simple  object,  as  a  cube  or  a  globe,  is  presented  to  the  sun,  we  see  easily  the  separation  of 
these  masses,  sharply  divided  in  the  two  sides  of  the  cube,  graded  into  each  other  in  the 
globe ;  and  it  is  quite  as  essential,  to  the  unity  of  a  composition,  that  the  shadows  be  united 
5 


66  WILSON'S   PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

other  the  lights  ought  to  appear  powerful  and  brilliant,  enveloped  in 
masses  of  obscurity.  When  shadow  is  carried  beyond  the  necessary 
depth  for  the  relief  or  distinct  marking  of  the  several  parts,  it  gives  the 
effect  of  breadth  to  the  picture,  from  the  fact  that  it  absorbs  many  of  the 
half-tints  and  renders  the  dark  less  cutting.  It  also  has  the  influence 
of  repose,  as  fewer  of  the  outlines  are  visible. 

86.  A  few  explanations  further,  using  imaginary  pictures,  but  trying 
to  make  them  plain  to  you.     Let  us  imagine  ourselves  in  a  railway  tun- 
nel or  cave,  say  twenty  feet  from  the  entrance,  and  looking  out.     Now, 
by  a  lens  outside,  let  the  light  be  collected  into  a  focus  and  thrown  ob- 
liquely upon  one  of  the  walls  of  the  tunnel.     We  shall  then  have  explained 
to  us  one  of  the  principal  properties  of  light,  upon  which  many  of  the 
old  masters  have  doubtless  formed  their  principles  of  light  and  shade. 
Where  the  bundles  of  rays  are  collected,  the  light  is  increased  in  bright- 
ness ;  and  when  they  become  more  diffused  arid  spread  out,  it  naturally 
becomes  more  feeble,  losing  itself  in  half-tint.     In  the  experiment  sug- 
gested to  your  imagination,  we  have  some  of  the  most  essential  qualities 
of  light  as  applicable  to  photographic  portraiture.     We  have  a  principal 
light,  which,  being  produced  by  the  collecting  of  the  rays,  leaves  that  por- 
tion of  ground  the  darkest  which  comes  in  contact  with  it,  thereby  as- 
sisting its  brightness.     We  obtain  an  innumerable  variety  of  gradations 
until  the  light  is  dissipated  and  lost. 

87.  Now,  the  question  may  be  asked,  how  can  these  properties  be  made 
use  of  in  the  management  of  the  light  and  shade  of  the  picture  ?  As  fol- 

into  one  mass  and  the  lights  into  another,  as  that  the  direction  of  illumination  should  be 
discoverable  and  single.  As  in  the  other  cases,  the  type  has  its  foundations  in  nature  and  the 
laws  of  the  mind,  and  obtains  in  complex  as  well  as  in  simple  forms.  If  our  globe  were  at 
all  rough  or  irregular,  it  would  follow  that  the  grading  of  the  masses  must  correspond.  The 
human  head  is  approximately  an  irregular  sphere,  and  we  find  the  masses  of  light  and  shade 
it  presents  broken  and  varied. — ~W.  J.  BAKER. 

86.  Burnet  very  justly  says  :  "  Every  light,  however  small,  ought  to  have  a  focus,  or  one 
part  brighter  than  another,  this  being  the  law  of  nature ;  and  for  the  same  reason  we  ought 
to  have  one  portion  of  a  dark  more  decided  than  the  rest.     Bring  these  two  extremes  together 
and  they  assist  each  other,  one  becoming  darker  and  the  other  brighter  from  the  effect  of 
contrast.     If  they  are  placed  at  the  opposite  sides  of  the  picture,  we  have  greater  breadth 
and  a  more  equal  balance." 

87.  If,  now,  the  chemicals  are  in  every  direction  in  perfect  order,  and  the  carrying  of  the 
process  of  the  plate  from  the  beginning  of  coating  it  with  collodion  till  fixing  it  after  rede- 
veloping is  well  executed,  why  does  not  the  negative  show  the  result  of  complete  harmony 
in  all  its  details?    The  fault  will  be  found  in  an  imperfect  lighting  of  the  subject,  for  surely 


TREATMENT   OF    THE   SUBJECT.  67 

lows  :  Let  the  principal  light,  or  focus  of  light,  be  on  the  upper  part  of 
the  face ;  then  allow  the  light  to  fall  down  on  the  figure,  and  you  thereby 
produce  a  union,  and  an  appearance  of  light  giving  out  rays  of  the  same 
hue  as  itself.  This  was  Rembrandt's  plan,  who  rendered  the  most  compli- 
cated compositions  subservient  to  the  simplest  principles  of  light  and  shade, 
and  who  was  equally  happy  in  his  portraits  of  single  figures.  Further- 
on,  an  effort  will  be  made  to  explain  more  fully  his  method  of  lighting. 

88.  Js"ow,  again,  imagine  yourself  in  the  tunnel,  and  the  focus  of  light 
coming  towards  you  directly  from  the  centre,  gradating  to  the  extremi- 
ties, with  a  border  of  dark  binding  in  the  whole.     By  this  mode  the  light 
has  great  brilliancy,  as  you  will  see,  giving  less  breadth,  but  less  contrast 
— a  soft  union  of  the  lights  with  the  shadows.     It  need  hardly  be  repeated 
to  you,  that  upon  the  management  of  light  and  shade  depends  the  general 
look  of  the  picture      There  is  an  art,  too,  in  their  management  and  dis- 
position, and  that  art  can  only  be  acquired  by  close  attention  and  the 
careful  examination  of  the  works  of  those  who  have  excelled  in  it. 

89.  Having  now  spoken  of  the  manner  of  lighting  the  subject  adopted 
by  Rembrandt,  a  further  explanation  of  what  his  method  was  becomes 
necessary.     Rembrandt  was  in  his  early  days  a  great  stickler  for  bright 
light  in  his  pictures,  often  at  the  sacrifice  of  other  qualities,  and  in  his  first 

there  will  not  be  any  more  details  on  the  picture  than  are  to  be  found  on  the  ground-glass  in 
the  camera,  after  having  focussed  properly  and  exactly. 

As  to  the  appearance  of  the  picture  on  the  ground-glass,  it  ought  to  contain  a  general 
brightness  and  a  soft  gradation  between  high-lights  and  deeper  shades,  in  order  to  give  the 
picture  a  perfect  relief,  not  forgetting  the  drapery,  furniture  used  for  posing,  and  background, 
the  proper  lighting  of  which  is  also  important  for  the  harmony  of  the  whole  picture.  Know- 
ing his  chemicals,  the  photographer  will  be  able  to  expose  his  plate  just  the  right  time,  which 
is  of  no  little  importance. — J.  K.  WOLOWSKI. 

88.  Reynolds  says :  "  The  same  rules  which  have  been  given  with  regard  to  the  regulation 
of  groups  of  figures,  must  be  observed  with  regard  to  the  grouping  of  lights  ;  that  there  shall 
be  a  superiority  of  one  over  the  rest;  that  they  shall  be  separated  and  varied  in  their  shapes; 
and  that  there  should  be  at  least  three  lights.     The  second  lights  ought,  for  the  sake  of 
harmony  and  union,  to  be  of  nearly  equal  brightness,  though  not  of  equal  magnitude,  with 
the  principal." 

89.  The  Rembrandt  light  means  a  limited  strong  light,  not  all  over  the  face,  but  jus*, 
merely  on  the  forehead — a  small  portion  of  the  forehead — and  a  little  on  the  nose.     The  rest 
of  the  face  not  total  darkness,  but  you  can  see  in  the  darkness — clalr-obscure — light  in  the 
shade.    There  is  Rembrandt  again.    The  Rembrandt  is  dark,  and  yet  you  see  everything  in  the 
picture,  because  it  is  all  transparent.     It  is  just  like  going  into  a  cellar  ;  at  first  you  do  not  see 
anything,  but  as  you  remain  two  or  three  minutes  you  begin  to  see  everything.    That  is  clair- 
obscure — light  in  darkness— everything  visible  and  yet  in  the  darkness. — D   C.  FABRONIUS. 


68  WILSON'S    PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

works  it  frequently  forms  a  circumscribed  spot,  for,  as  Reynolds  has  ob- 
served, "that  light  must  appear  the  brightest  which  is  surrounded  by  the 
FIG  24  greatest  quantity  of  shade."     His  plan 

is  followed  by  many  photographers  of 
the  present  day.  They  select  the  face  of 
the  figure  for  a  blaze  of  light,  and  work 
their  chemicals  so  intensely  as  to  make 
hair  and  drapery  so  black  that  the  beauti- 
ful half-tones  that  should  be  secured  in 
the  flesh  are  entirely  gone.  An  example 
of  this  will  be  found  in  the  portrait  here- 
with, of  Rembrandt,  by  himself. 

90.  This  is  a  mistake.  All  know  that 
the  sun-burned  people  of  the  country 
like  "nice  white  faces,"  but  they  must 
be  educated  to  what  is  tasteful  and  right;  or,  if  the  photographer  must 
give  in,  let  him  manage  some  way  to  introduce  other  lights  into  the 
picture  to  detract  somewhat  from  the  face,  and  prevent  it  from  looking 
quite  so  glaring.  This  can  be  done  in  very  many  ways,  governed  by  cir- 
cumstances ;  for  example,  a  handkerchief  in  a  side-pocket,  a  book  held 
open  in  the  hand,  the  hands  folded  on  a  chair,  and  dark  cloth,  or  some- 

90.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  observe  that  I  do  not  advocate  such  violent  contrasts  as 
would  destroy  all  transparency  in  shadows,  or  all  detail  in  the  lights.  But  I  do  maintain 
that  this  style  of  lighting,  judiciously  managed,  frequently  reveals  a  beauty  in  nature, 
whether  contemplated  in  landscape  or  human  faces,  that  would  never  be  seen  in  the  mild 
contrast  of  a  diffused  light.  No  cultivated  eye  has  failed  to  observe  this  fact,  and  no  experi- 
ence, it  matters  not  how  limited,  but  has  had  occasion  to  note,  under  the  ever-varying  con- 
formations of  nature,  how  frequently  contrasts  will  best  subserve  the  purpose  of  displaying  its 
beauties.  Frequently  by  this  means  lines  are  so  softened,  and  angles  so  rounded  or  modified, 
as  to  turn  what  otherwise  would  be  harsh  and  unsightly  almost  into  the  very  poetry  of  form 
and  expression. 

I  have  taken  pains  to  test  the  effect  of  this  style  of  lighting  upon  hundreds  of  subjects, 
watching  closely  its  advantage  or  disadvantage  upon  merely  personal  beauty  as  well  as  its 
effect  upon  the  mind  of  the  sitter.  From  want  of  cultivation  or  taste,  most  sitters  dislike 
strong  shadows  ;  but  even  in  such  cases,  if  you  submit  proofs  of  the  two  styles  of  lighting, 
the  Kembrandt  effects  will  so  much  better  display  the  personal  good  points  of  the  subject,  that 
in  eight  cases  out  of  ten  this  style  of  lighting  will  be  selected,  the  natural  prejudice  against 
strong  shadows  being  overcome  by  the  greater  desire  to  be  beautiful.  The  photographer 
should  take  advantage  of  these  conflicting  elements  as  pointing  the  way  by  which  the  public 
taste  can  be  educated  up  to  a  proper  appreciation  of  really  artistic  photographic  composi- 
tions.— D.  H.  ANDERSON. 


TEEATMENT    OF    THE    SUBJECT.  69 

thing  draped  near  them,  so  as  to  bring  out  the  light  more  prominently — 
in  a  hundred  ways  one  may  counteract  the  evil  spoken  of  with  useful 
effect.  A  good  study  in  this  direction  FJG  ^ 

is  given  in  "  Orpin,  the  Parish  Clerk 
of  Bradford,"  by  Thomas  Gainsbor- 
ough, as  the  light  on  the  hands  and  on 
the  edges  of  the  book  show. 

91.  But  Rembrandt's  extending  of  the 
light  through  the  picture  gradually  became 
more  enlarged.  He  finally  illuminated 
even  his  darkest  shadows  by  streaks  of 
red,  or  rich  brown  color,  running  into 
them.  The  same  effect  may  be  secured 
by  the  photographer  if  skill  be  exer- 
cised in  lighting.  One  of  the  greatest 
charms  of  Mr.  Adam  Salomon's  ex- 
quisite work  is  in  this  very  thing. 
While  there  seems  to  be  consider- 
able clear  glass  in  his  negatives,  judg- 
ing from  his  prints,  yet,  when  we  examine  them,  little  delicate  streaks  of 
half-lights  are  seen  dancing  about  here  and  there,  like  colors  in  a  dew- 
drop,  giving  a  tone  and  charm  to  the  picture  which  is  truly  fascinating. 
Very  often,  in  a  composition  picture,  accessories  may  be  introduced  to 
receive  the  light  and  secure  the  desired  effect  of  light  and  shade.  A 
ray  of  light  falling  into  the  operating  apartment  upon  a  light  object, 
may,  as  in  nature,  reflect  back  the  rays  and  illuminate  the  surrounding 
objects,  giving  thus  the  principal  light  the  properties  of  light  itself. 

91.  My  method  of  securing  these  brilliant  effects  is  as  follows :  I  place  behind  the  model, 
to  serve  as  a  background,  a  large  window  of  glass  of  the  color  of  red  fire.  This  background 
window  is  placed  on  the  best  lighted  side  of  the  studio,  so  as  to  secure  the  most  luminous  and 
transparent  effect.  The  model  is  placed  about  twenty  inches  in  advance  of  the  window — 
just  a  sufficient  distance,  in  fact,  to  permit  the  moving  of  the  head-rest.  At  a  greater  dis- 
tance the  effect  would  not  be  so  good.  The  size  of  the  window  may  be  determined  by  the 
artist  in  relation  to  the  class  of  work  he  may  wish  to  produce,  and  the  glass  should  have  a 
simple  frame  of  wood.  The  oblique  rays  of  white  light  are  especially  effective,  and,  com- 
bined w»'h  the  red  light,  permit  of  the  production  of  some  very  interesting  and  varied 
effects.  By  varying  the  position  of  the  model  in  relation  to  the  window,  the  varied  com- 
bination of  the  white  rays  with  the  red  present  some  very  interesting  points  of  study,  and 
the  process  produces  images  in  very  powerful  relief  upon  a  black  background  peculiarly 
transparent. — ADAM  SALOMON. 


70 


WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 


92.  The  shadows  of  all  objects  receiving  such  rays,  we  shall  generally 
find  well  defined,  as  in  nature,  and  Rembrandt  frequently  introduced  such 
objects  for  the  purpose  of  producing  lights,  giving  an  appearance  of  truth 
to  the  whole  effect.     At  other  times  we  find  the  shadows  swallowed  up 

FIG.  26.  in  the  splendor  of 

light,  as  if  afraid 
o  f  disturbing  its 
breadth.  He  always 
had  some  end  to  ac- 
complish, and  that 
should  be  the  plan 
of  the  photographer 
who  desires  to  *  ex- 
cel. Have  a  plan, 
a  purpose,  and  work 
up  to  it.  To  illus- 
trate, a  copy  of 
Hembrandt'  s  c  e  1  e- 
brated  group, "  The 
Syndic  of  the  Cloth-Mongers,"  is  given.  The  original  is  now  in  the 
museum  at  Amsterdam,  and  is  one  of  the  wonders  of  art. 

93.  It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  give  a  few  examples  in  the  practice 

92.  One  of  Dr.  Johnson's  definitions  of  softness  is  "  vicious  delicacy,"  which  admirably 
expresses  its  relation  to  art.     Now  I  look  upon  gradation  as  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  art 
qualities,  which  may  be  defined,  in  contradistinction  to  softness,  as  delicacy  without  vice. 
Gradation  will  include  every  tint  and  tone  between  absolute  white  and  absolute  black.     It 
is  true  that,  in  a  limited  sense,  every  progress  of  one  tint  into  another,  however  narrow 
the  scale,  is  a  gradation,  and  would  therefore  include  softness;  but  in  art  the  word  grada- 
tion is  used  to  express  a  much  wider  scale  than  can  be  included  by  the  word  softness.     Kuskin 
says  there  can  be  no  true  gradation  that  does  not  include  the  extremes  of  black  and  white — 
the  whites  to  be  precious,  the  blacks  conspicuous.      The  whites  tender  and  delicate,  and 
limited,  if  you  like,  but  bright  and  lustrous  where  they  are  required  (and  they  are  required 
in  every  picture);  the  blacks  must  be  conspicuous — however  small  a  piece  of  black  may  be, 
it  ought  to  catch  the  eye.     There  is  gradation  in  every  inch  of  nature ;  but  without  the 
judicious  introduction  of  pure  black  and  pure  white,  the  luminous  beauty  to  be  gained  by 
ever- varying  gradation  is  lost,  or  becomes  that  "vicious  delicacy  "  called  softness. — H.  P. 
ROBINSON. 

93.  I  am  considering  the  pose  of  my  sitter  and  the  lighting.     I  judge  that  the  dark  space 
behind  will  absorb  or  obliterate  the  dark  side  of  the  sitter,  and  I  cannot  well  put  there  a 
light,  permanent  screen, — that  would  cut  him  in  two  by  its  line, — so  I  ask  my  assistant  to  take 
that  little  white  canvas  screen  on  a  stretcher  and  move  it  behind  the  figure  while  I  yet  have 


TKEATMENT    OF    THE   SUBJECT.  71 

of  chiaro-oscuro,  or  rather  to  illustrate  the  same.  When  the  light  part 
of  the  composition  is  placed  upon  the  dark  side  of  the  background,  and 
the  dark  part  upon  the  light  side,  greater  firmness  and  solidity  are  pro- 
duced, and  a  more  equal  balance  is  kept  up.  The  contrary  method  has 
more  breadth  and  softness  of  effect,  but  there  is  danger  of  the  picture 
being  flat.  In  a  single  head,  as  we  often  have  but  one  light,  it  is  there- 
fore necessary  to  get  it  to  harmonize  with  the  shadow,  either  in  the  back- 
ground or  upon  the  dress.  This  you  may  secure  by  throwing  your  light 
on  your  side-screen  in  a  way  that  the  drapery  will  be  lighted  about  the 
same  as  the  shadow  side  of  the  face.  When  the  principal  light  is  kept 
at  one  side,  there  is  an  opportunity  of  introducing  a  larger  portion  of 
shadow  than  when  the  light  is  in  the  centre,  which  is  often  of  much 
consequence.  Our  object  in  photography  should  be  to  get  neither  too 
strong  light  nor  too  strong  shadows.  Both  are  repulsive  and  both  are 
equally  inartistic.  Modulation  in  all  proper  places,  in  quantity  to  suit 
circumstances,  is  the  best,  and  should  always  be  sought  after. 

94.  The  adoption  of  a  purpose,  and  the  striving  to  attain  it,  has  been 
advised.  "  To  form  the  purpose  is  one  thing,"  you  remark,  "  and  to  ac- 
complish it  is  another."  Very  true ;  yet  a  photographer  has  more  under 
control  in  his  studio  than  he  sometimes  imagines.  He  sees  the  work  of 
others  superior  to  his  own.  The  lighting  of  the  figures  seems  to  strike 
him  as  the  main  source  of  beauty, — and  truly  so,  perhaps, — and  he  forth- 

my  plate  in  the  bath.  I  now  look  into  the  camera,  and  as  he  moves  it  at  the  rate  of  two  or 
three  vibrations  in  a  second,  I  direct  him:  "A  little  higher;"  "a  little  further  back;" 
"  there  now  ;"  "  a  little  lower  ;"  and  so  forth,  just  as  I  imagine  the  light  should  be,  accord- 
ing to  the  outline  of  my  sitter.  When  I  am  satisfied  with  the  light,  I  make  my  assistant 
notice  how  far  he  has  extended  the  screen  forward  and  upward.  I  now  insert  the  plate,  and 
expose  the  figure  with  the  full,  dark  background  behind  him,  but  only  for  a  moiety  of  the 
time  I  intend  for  the  full  exposure ;  then  I  cap  the  lens  for  an  instant,  while  my  assistant 
takes  the  place  to  which  I  had  schooled  him.  He  then  commences  to  move  the  screen  in 
the  proper  manner,  when  I  again  uncap  the  lens  and  complete  the  required  exposure.  It 
was  in  the  way  here  described  I  took  the  well-known  portrait  of  my  friend  Gustave  Dore. 
From  the  movement,  the  outline  of  the  white  screen  is  entirely  lost,  and  it  gives  a  beautiful 
graduated  effect.  Even  when  you  want  an  entirely  light  background,  it  is  better  to  expose 
at  first  for  a  short  time  with  the  dark  ground,  afterwards  inserting  a  light  ground ;  for  a 
face  taken  in  this  way  is  finer  than  when  a  uniformly  light  ground  is  used  throughout. — 
O.  G.  KEJLANDER. 

94.  Now  this  admired,  but  certainly  not  admirable,  softness  is  a  totally  different  quality 
to  gradation,  for  which  it  is  sometimes  mistaken,  just  as  adulteration  may  be  sometimes 
nearlv  undistinguishable  from  uurity,  except  to  the  taste  of  the  adept.  Softness  is  that  so*1* 


72  WILSON'S  PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

with  proceeds  to  tear  out  and  rebuild  his  glass-room,  all  the  while  hav- 
ing it  in  his  power  to  secure  the  same  results  without  the  expense  and 
trouble  of  alteration,  if  he  but  use  what  brains  he  may  have  in  applying 
himself  to  the  work.  His  light  may  be  the  same  precisely  as  that  of 
his  more  successful  and  skilful  neighbor,  but  he  cannot  produce  as  good 
effects,  for  the  reason  that  he  has  an  idea  it  is  "  all  in  the  light,"  or 
in  some  "  secret  formula  "  unknown  to  him.  He  can  produce  pictures, 
black  and  wThite,  such  as  have  been  described,  or  he  can,  by  covering  up 
his  defects  by  the  application  of  the  "  patent  mezzotint"  or  "  softness" 
dodge,  secure  prints  fuzzy,  feathery,  flat,  and  feeble,  entirely  void  of 
force  and  vigor.  But  neither  of  these  are  what  you  should  make  the 
effort  to  produce. 

95.  Study  and  imitate  the  works  of  others.     Do  not  be  confined  to 
those  of  photography,  however.     There  is  much,  very  much,  outside  of 
them  worthy  of  study,  in  the  multitude  of  engravings  and  drawings  to 
be  seen  or  had  almost  anywhere.     Some  of  the  grandest  studies  of  light 
and  shade  are  to  be  found  in  the  engravings  in  old  books  to  be  had  at 
the  book-stands.     The  habit  of  studying  such  is  a  very  laudable  one,  and 
will  repay  for  the  time  it  takes.     It  is  a  good  plan,  too,  to  collect  a  series 
of  engraved  portraits  from  the  paintings  of  many  of  the  old  masters, 
copy  them,  and  mount  photographs  of  them  all  on  one  board.     These 
can  be  studied  with  great  benefit,  and  will  be  found  to  aid  much  in  manag- 
ing the  chiaro-oscuro  of  your  pictures. 

96.  As  in  photographic  manipulations  a  photographer  should  not  only 
know  that  certain  combinations  of  chemicals  produce  certain  results,  but 
why  they  do  so,  so  in  studying  and  finding  out  the  beauties  of  the  work  of 

of  muddled  effect  that  has  no  high-lights  nor  brilliant  touches  of  black,  as  though  the  pho- 
tographer was  afraid  of  the  wide  gamut  of  light  and  shade  afforded  him  by  his  art,  and 
could  only  venture  to  play  a  few  notes  in  the  middle  of  the  scale — a  sort  of  dull  pictorial 
mud,  without  life  ^r  pluck. — 0.  G.  KEJLANDER. 

95.  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  has  truly  said:  "  The  great  use  of  studying  our  predecessors  is 
to  open  the  mind,  to  shorten  our  labor,  and  to  give  us  the  result  of  the  selection  made  by 
those  great  minds  of  what  is  grand  or  beautiful  in  nature ;  her  rich  stores  are  all  spread  out 
before  us ;  but  it  is  an  art,  and  no  easy  art,  to  know  how  or  what  to  choose,  and  how  to  ob- 
tain and  secure  the  object  of  our  choice.  Thus  the  highest  beauty  of  form  must  be  taken 
from  nature,  but  it  is  an  art  of  long  deduction  arid  great  experience  to  know  how  to  find  it. 
We  must  not  content  ourselves  with  merely  admiring  and  relishing  ;  we  must  enter  into  the 
principles  on  which  the  work  is  wrought ;  they  do  not  swim  on  the  surfaces,  and  consequently 
are  not  open  to  superficial  observers." 


TREATMENT    OF   THE   SUBJECT. 

others  he  should  be  able  to  tell  why  and  how  such  beauties  happen  to 
exist.  This  taxes  his  knowledge,  his  taste,  and  his  inventive  genius,  and 
is  capital  exercise.  The  true  photographer  is  not  content,  either,  with  the 
quiet  acknowledgment  of  the  superiority  of  the  works  of  others  over 
his  own.  He  finds  out  by  thought  and  experiment  how  the  perspective 
is  secured,  how  the  composition  is  arranged,  how  the  light  is  disposed, 
and  all  the  purposes  of  the  artist  in  making  the  pictures.  He  looks  and 
studies  until  he  has  a  good,  distinct  idea  of  what  makes  any  picture 
beautiful,  and  with  the  means  at  hand  endeavors  to  imitate  the  good  and 
overcome  the  objectionable. 

97.  What  is  learned  by  such  hard  study  is  not  apt  to  leave  one,  but 
will  influence  him  in  his  daily  work  for  good  or  bad ;  therefore  be  taught 
rightly.  A  few  final  hints  on  light  and  shade  may  be  useful.  Always 
have  the  management  of  the  light  uppermost  in  your  mind.  A  subject 
ever  so  gracefully  posed  is  easily  spoiled  in  lighting.  Let  that  part  of 
the  picture  which  is  of  greatest  importance — the  face — be  the  subject  of 
your  special  care.  When  introduced  to  a  stranger,  our  attention  is  first 
directed  to  his  face ;  and  so  it  is  with  a  picture.  Light  your  face  well, 
then;  give  good  exposures,  and  you  will  secure  effects  that  will  reward  you 
for  your  care.  At  the  same  time  do  not  overlook  those  helpful  append- 
ages in  every  picture — the  hands.  They  may  spoil  your  composition,  or 
they  may  serve  largely  in  making  it.  They  are  never  to  be  disregarded, 
even  if  they  do  not  show  in  the  picture,  for  their  disposition  has  much  to 
do  with  the  carriage  of  the  body. 

97.  Lavater  told  Goethe,  that,  on  a  certain  occasion,  he  held  the  church-bag  for  the 
collection  of  offerings  from  the  people,  when  he  tried  to  observe  only  the  hands,  and  satisfied 
himself  that  in  every  individual  the  shape  of  the  fingers  and  hand,  and  the  action  expressive 
of  the  feeling  in  dropping  the  gift,  were  distinctly  different  and  characteristic. 

Thus  we  see  how  important  a  member  is  the  hand ;  second  only  to  the  face  in  its  capacity 
for  expression,  it  should  receive  nothing  less  than  secondary  attention,  and  be  kept  in 
harmony  with  the  face,  as  well  as  with  the  whole  action  of  the  body,  whatever  may  be  rep- 
resented. The  hand  should  be  studied  with  as  much  care  as  the  face.  There  are  twice  as 
many  of  them ;  we  see  them  in  our  daily  life  under  all  conditions,  and  doing  all  sorts  of 
things.  Wherever  we  see  one  that  is  pleasing,  make  a  note  of  it;  remember  it,  and  the  time 
will  soon  come  when  in  our  daily  practice  we  can  make  the  hand  of  some  sitter  take  the 
same  beautiful  form  that  impressed  itself  upon  our  own  mind.  When  we  see  a  hand  that  is 
not  pleasing,  let  us  consider  why  it  is  not  so,  and  remember  it  as  well  as  the  other,  so  as  to 
avoid  ever  photographing  one  like  it.  Thus  we  learn  ;  and  let  us  remember  that  every  pic- 
ture is  made  up  of  parts,  details,  all  of  which  require  careful  attention,  and  there  are  none 
moi-e  important  than  the  hands  of  our  sitters. — "  YOUNG  CHLORIDE." 


74 


WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 


98.  The  wondrous  potency  of  composition — lines  and  effect — is  dis- 
played in  the  closing  illustration  of  this  lesson.     In  it  we  have  examples 


FIG.  27. 

l!  ?3, 


HfjJL1 

W 


Aliit 


JES    t    /f Si\    t    ^    - 

KB          mi         feffi    k 

mlMttflkttkttMi\&1f^. 


i^j 


of  all  the  various  forms  of  composition;  all  the  varieties  of  lines;  light 
and  shade;  perspective;  balance;  unity;  Rembrandt  effects;  massing  of 

98.  After  man  has- fulfilled  all  of  his  requirements  as  an  animal,  in  making  himself  secure 
against  his  neighbor,  a  superior  life  dawns  on  him — that  of  contemplation,  by  which  he  is 
led  to  interest  himself  in  the  creative  and  permanent  causes  on  which  his  own  being  and  that 
of  his  fellows  depend,  in  the  leading  and  essential  characters  which  rule  each  aggregate,  and 


TREATMENT   OF    THE   SUBJECT.  75 

the  lights;  action;  repose;  the  careful  introduction  of  accessories;  and, 
if  we  could  hear  it,  doubtless  there  is  perfect  harmony,  also,  through- 
out. It  is  a  wonderful  study,  and  will  reveal  its  merits  to  you — show 
you  new  beauties  afresh  each  time  you  examine  it.  It  is  full  of 
excellent  lessons  and  suggestions,  and  is  produced  strictly  upon  the 
principles  just  expounded. 

99.  This  endless  subject  must  now  reluctantly  be  dropped  here.  It 
has  not  been  exhausted  by  any  manner  of  means.  In  the  beginning,  the 
most  that  was  hoped  for  was  to  interest  you  sufficiently  in  it  to  help  you 
comprehend  its  importance,  and  to  know  somewhat  of  its  nature.  If 
this  has  happily  been  accomplished,  then,  from  being  sensible  of  the  effects 
of  art  from  instinct,  you  are  already  so  far  advanced  as  to  be  able  to 
reason  out  the  causes  of  your  respect  and  esteem  for  it,  and  it  will  be- 
come a  part  of  your  nature — of  your  life.  And  if  it  has  thus  become 

impress  their  marks  on  the  minutest  details.  Two  ways  are  open  to  him  for  this  purpose. 
The  first  is  science,  by  which,  analyzing  these  causes  and  these  fundamental  laws,  he  ex- 
presses them  in  abstract  terms  and  precise  formula.  The  second  is  art,  by  which  he  mani- 
fests these  causes  and  these  fundamental  laws  no  longer  through  arid  definitions,  inaccessible 
to  the  multitude,  and  only  intelligible  to  a  favored  few,  but  in  a  sensible  way,  appealing  not 
alone  to  reason,  but  also  to  the  heart  and  senses  of  the  humblest  individual.  ^  Art  has  this 
peculiarity,  that  it  is  at  once  noble  and  popular,  manifesting  what  is  most  exalted,  and  mani- 
festing it  not  at  all.— N.  TAINE. 

99.  "  Ah  !  what  do  you  ask  about  art  ?  I  can  say  nothing  that  shall  satisfy  you.  Ask  about 
love,  that  is  my  art ;  in  it  I  am  to  perform,  in  it  I  shall  recollect  myself  and  rejoice " 

But  this  breaking  forth  to  light  of  the  mind,  is  it  not  art?  This  inner  man  asking  for 
light,  to  have  by  the  finger  of  God  loosened  his  tongue,  untied  his  hearing,  awakened  all 
senses  to  receive  and  to  spend ;  and  is  love  here  not  the  only  master,  and  we  its  disciples  in 
every  work  which  we  form  by  its  inspiration  ? 

"Works  of  art,  however,  are  those  which  alone  we  call  art,  through  which  we  think  to 
perceive  and  enjoy  art.  But  as  for  the  producing  of  God  in  heart  and  mind  overpowers 
the  idea  we  make  to  ourselves  of  him  and  his  laws,  which  in  temperate  life  are  of  value, 
even  so  does  art  overpower  men's  valuing  of  it.  They  who  fancy  to  understand  it  will  per- 
form no  more  than  what  is  ruled  by  understanding  ;  but  whose  senses  are  submitted  to  its 
spirit,  he  has  revelation.  All  production  of  art  is  a  symbol  of  revelation,  where  the  con- 
ceiving mind  is  often  more  imparted  with  revelation  than  the  producing  one.  Art  is  wit- 
ness that  in  our  world  the  language  of  a  higher  one  is  plainly  to  be  perceived  ;  and  when  to 
explain  it  we  venture  not,  then  it  will  make  us  ready  for  this  higher  spirit's  life,  of  which  it 
is  the  language.  We  want  not  to  understand  it,  but  to  trust  in  it ;  faith  is  the  seed  through 
which  this  language  spirit  germs  in  us  ;  so  as  all  wisdom  springs  from  faith,  as  it  is  the  seed 
of  an  immortal  world,  as  the  highest  wonder  is  true,  all  that  lies  there  between  must  be  an 
approach  to  truth  and  but  the  judging  mind  of  mankind  misleads.  What,  in  fairness,  may 
and  dares  make  us  wonder,  but  our  own  meanness? — BETTINE  VON  ARNIM,  IN  "  GOETHE'S 
CORRESPONDENCE  WITH  A  CHILD." 


76  WILSON'S   PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

a  part  of  you,  then  it  will  pervade  your  every  act  when  prosecuting  the 
department  to  which  you  are  devoted,  and  mould  you  and  influence  you 
in  its  own  sweet,  seductive  way,  until  you  live  it,  and  the  results  of  your 
study  and  labor  will  show  its  impress  upon  them  to  a  degree  that  will 
surprise  and  delight  all  for  whom  you  labor.  Your  works  will  be  you, 
and  you  will  be  honored  and  patronized  as  you  deserve. 

100.  The  preceding  pages  have  been  devoted  more  especially  to  the 
treatment  of  the  portrait  subject,  although  some  of  the  illustrations  have 
pointed  somewhat  to  work  out  of  doors,  necessarily,  as  the  same  rules 
of  art  come  into  play  with  all  classes  of  subjects.  Further  on,  the  fas- 
cinating department  of  landscape  photography  will  be  attended  to,  with 
different  illustrations  and  notes. 

Use  the  instructions  given  with  due  abstinence,  and  they  will  act  as  a 
healthful  tonic  in  your  work;  indulged  in  intemperately,  as  an  enervating 
opiate.  Stick  to  stern  realities,  and  do  not  let  them  be  usurped  by 
visionary  ideas.  Measure  things  for  what  they  are  worth,  and  not  on 
account  of  the  day  dreams  they  engender.  If  your  imagination  is  al- 
lowed to  transcend  these  rules  of  art,  some  of  you  will  be  made  lunatics 
by  them,  some  somnambulists,  and  very  few  attain  the  heroism  of  art. 
Enthusiasm  is  good  when  controlled.  Only  a  staff  is  given  you  here 
to  walk  with — only  the  suggestion  that  you  must  walk  by  principles,  to 
succeed. 

As  a  final  illustration  of  photography  done  upon  art  principles  an  ex- 
cellent phototype  by  Mr.  F.  Gutekunst  follows.  Here  are  eleven  pictures 
of  one  person,  in  as  many  attitudes,  showing  that  when  art  is  used  as  a 
helper,  there  is  much  more  than  one  set  position  attainable  for  every 
model  presented  for  a  portrait.  As  studies  with  the  rules  here  so  imper- 
fectly explained,  these  pictures  are  invaluable.  Please  to  give  them 
studious  attention. 

100.  Art  is  the  microscope  of  the  mind,  which  sharpens  the  wit  as  the  other  does  the  sight> 
and  converts  every  object  into  a  little  universe  in  itself.  Art  may  be  said  to  draw  away  the 
veil  from  nature.  To  those  who  are  perfectly  unskilled  in  the  practice,  unimbued  with 
the  principles  of  art,  most  objects  present  only  a  confused  mass. — HAZLITT. 

Excellence  in  art  is  to  be  attained  only  by  active  effort  and  not  by  passive  impressions; 
by  the  manly  overcoming  of  difficulties,  by  the  patient  struggle  against  adverse  circum- 
stances, by  the  thrifty  use  of  moderate  opportunities.  The  great  artists  were  not  rocked  or 
dandled  into  eminence,  but  they  attained  to  it  by  that  course  of  labor  and  discipline  whicb 
no  man  need  go  to  Koine  or  Paris  or  London  to  enter  upon. — HILLIARD. 


/         Miss  ' 


< 


LESSOR   B. 

THE     NEEDFUL     APPARATUS.* 

101.  THE  choice  of  apparatus  and  materials  with  which  to  work  should 
have  the  wisest  attention  in  photography.     If  good  results  are  to  be  se- 
cured, then  the  wherewithal  to  produce  them  of  the  best  quality  must 
be  employed  invariably.     In  no  department  of  the  arts  or  of  the  sciences 
or   manufactures   is   this   more   true  than   in   photography;    therefore 
the  good  rule — get  the  best — should  be  carefully  followed  in  the  purchase 
of  all  the  articles  employed  in  its  practice. 

102.  Let  us  therefore  proceed  to  inform  us — 1,  as  to  what  are  needed; 
and,  2,  as  to  how  to  select  them ;  or,  in  other  words,  how  to  procure  the 
proper  outfit  for  the  practice  of  photography  in  and  out  of  doors.     The 
camera  comes  first.     This  must  be  absolutely  first-class  in  every  respect — 
compact,  light,  strong,  exact  in  all  its  parts — made  of  carefully  seasoned 
wood  and  well  wrought  metal,  carefully  put  together  with  all  modern 
improvements,  with  the  best  workmanship  throughout.     The  cameras 
supplied   now   by  our   American   manufacturers   leave   nothing  to   be 
desired;    they  are  the  best  in  the  world.     So  there  is  no  excuse  for 
the   purchase  of  an  imperfect  or  spurious    one,  whose  movable  parts 
will   not  work;    which  allows  light  to  creep  through  its  joints,  thus 
spoiling  every  attempt  to  get  a  good  result  with  it ;  or  distorts  all  nature 
villanously. 

103.  A  modern  camera  comprises  a  dark  chamber,  varying  in  size  ac- 
cording to  the  dimensions  of  the  picture  to  be  made  with  it,  which  is 
provided  with  a  bellows  and  focussing  machinery,  by  means  of  which 
the  image  may  be  sharply  defined  through  the  lens  upon  the  ground- 
glass  at  its  back,  the  lens  being  placed  at  the  front.     The  ground-glass, 

*  The  illustrations  in  this  lesson  were  made  from  apparatus  manufactured  by  the  American 
Optical  Company  (Scovill  Manufacturing  Company,  New  York,  proprietors)  especially  foi 
this  work. 

(77) 


78 


WILSON'S  PHOTOGEAPHICS. 


POKTKrilT    CAMERA 


after  a  focus  is  procured,  is  displaced  by  a  dark-slide,  containing  the  sensi- 
tive plate  which  is  to  receive  the  image  of  the  object  being  photographed. 

104.  THE  PORTRAIT  CAMERA  is  usually  constructed  with  a  square  bel- 
lows, long  enough  to  permit  such  distension  as  will  enable  us  to  make 

FIG  28-  various  sizes  of  pictures  with  it. 

It  is  heavier  than  the  view  cam- 
era, provided  with  a  longer 
platform  and  a  double  "  swing- 
back."  This  last  convenience 
is  for  the  purpose  of  enabling 
one  to  change  the  position  of 
the  plate  when  difficulties  oc- 
cur in  focussing.  When  lenses 
of  short  focus  are  used,  for  old 
people  and  children,  the  "  swing- 
back  "  is  a  great  help.  It  also  saves  much  annoyance,  both  to  the  opera- 
tor and  his  subject,  for  frequently  an  entire  change  of  position  or  arrange- 
ment would  have  to  be  made,  or  the  place  of  the  apparatus  changed, 
were  it  not  possible  to  accomplish  the  desired  end  by  means  of  the 
"  swing"  or  adjustable  uback"  of  the  camera. 

105.  THE  VIEW  CAMERA  of  the  American  apparatus-maker  is  his  pride. 
He  has  applied  all  his  ingenuity  to  its  construction,  to  make  it  light, 

FIG.  29.  strong,  convenient,  accurate,  and  ele- 

gant in  appearance.  In  principle  it 
is  precisely  the  same  as  that  of  the 
portrait  camera.  In  construction 
every  effort  is  made  to  secure  a  de- 
crease of  weight.  The  bellows  is 
made  of  "  cone  "  shape ;  the  frame- 
work of  the  toughest  and  strongest 
wood;  the  metal  parts  of  the  most 
improved  form,  and  the  whole  so 
skilfully  put  together  as  to  stand 
any  climate  and  much  abuse,  as  well  as  use,  before  it  gives  way.  In  a 
view  camera  the  "  double  swing-back  "  is  absolutely  essential,  and  the 
plate-holders  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  enable  one  to  make  the  view 
vertically  or  horizontally. 


CONE-BELLOWS   VIEW  CAMERA. 


THE    NEEDFUL  APPARATUS.  79 

106.  THE  STEREOSCOPIC  CAMERA  may  be  mentioned  as  a  form  largely 
used   in    America,  and,  although    a   view  FlG 

camera,  it  has  a  few  points  which  are  dif- 
ferent. It  is  made  after  the  plan  of  the 
view  camera,  but  so  as  to  use  two  lenses, 
that  a  double  image  may  be  had  at  one  ex- 
posure upon  the  same  plate.  Modern  ones 
are  provided  with  a  movable  division,  so 
that  the  same  camera  may  also  be  employed 
for  taking  a  single  view  with  one  obj ective.  '76  STEREOSCOPIC  CAME«A- 

The  best  size  for  such  work  is  5  x  8  inches,  and  this  sort  of  a  camera  is 
the  best  for  a  beginner  in  out-door  work  to  employ,  until  he  can  aspire 
to  something  larger.  Anything  smaller  is  unsatisfactory,  and  insufficient 
to  inspire  much  enthusiasm  for  out-door  photography.  The  regular  view 
camera  is  made  of  all  sizes  from  4x5  inches  to  22  x  28  inches,  or  even 
larger  when  required. 

107.  How  TO  TELL  A  GOOD  CAMERA. — As  a  usual  thing,  the  modern 
American  camera  of  the  best   quality  is  assuredly  "all  right"  at  the 
time  of  purchase.     It  may  be  well,  however,  to  know  how  to  test  its 
quality.     It  may  "  leak "  light.     If  it  does,  it  will  fog  and  spoil  every 
sensitive  plate  you  trust  to  its  care.     To  prove  its  good  faith  with  you, 
cap  the  lens,  remove  the  ground-glass,  and,  with  focussing-cloth  tightly 
over  you  camera  and  your  head,  peer  into  it  for  intruding  beams  of 
light.     If  none  are  seen,  your  camera  is  so  far  faultless.     JS"ow  you  un- 
derstand that  the  inside  of  your  "  ground-"  or  "  focussing-"  glass  receives 
the  reduced  inverted  image  of  the  object  you  are  about  to  photograph, 
and  that  by  the  adjustment  of  the  lens  you  there  secure  it  defined  to  the 
highest  degree.     This  surface  is  replaced  by  the  sensitive  film,  when  you 
are  about  to  expose,  and  the  last  must  take  the  place  of  the  first  ex- 
actly, or  your  picture  will  be  "  out  of  focus  " — illy  defined.     Therefore, 
if  you  have  focussed  carefully  upon  an  object,  and  after  taking  a  picture 
you  find  that  the  object  is  not  defined  so  accurately  as  you  saw  it  upon 
your  ground-glass — as  it  should  be — then  there  is  a  lack  of  coincidence 
between  the  chemical  and  visual  or  actinic  foci;  the  camera  is  at  fault, 
and  must  be  so  altered  as  to  produce  the  proper  result. 

108.  CARE  OF  THE  CAMERA. — Once  possessed  of  a  good  camera,  learn  to 
take  excellent  care  of  it.     It  is  not  made  for  abuse,  neither  should  it  be 


80  WILSON'S  PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

expected  to  stand  combat  with  the  elements  like  a  plough  or  a  mowing- 
machine.  Remember  this :  Once  knowing  that  bad  results  are  produci- 
ble, damage  possible,  do  all  in  your  power  to  prevent  them;  exercising 
always  every  care.  "  Dirt  is  matter  in  the  wrong  place,"  says  the  philos- 
opher. Light  is  dirt  when  it  intrudes  at  the  wrong  time  into  the  camera 
or  upon  the  sensitized  plate.  Keep  it  out  and  off  by  covering  the  camera 
when  in  the  sun,  and  carrying  the  holders  containing  the  sensitized  plates 
also  covered.  Cover  up  the  camera,  when  not  in  use,  from  wind  and 
storm,  dampness  and  sunshine.  Keep  it  cleaned  from  splashings  of  sil- 
ver and  droppings  of  dust.  Some  manufacturers  supply  flannel  coverings 
with  each  elegant  camera  they  produce.  These  should  always  be  used. 

109.  THE.  CAMERA-STAND  is  used  to  so  place  the  camera  in  relation  to 
the  object  to  be  photographed  as  to  secure  its  image  in  proper  position 
upon  the  sensitive  plate.     It  should,  for  portrait  work,  be  strong,  steady, 
solid,  provided  with  rack-work  for  raising  and  lowering  it,  and  with  an 
adjustable  top  by  means  of  which  a  proper  inclination  of  the  camera  can 
be  had.     It  should  have  castors  on  the  two  fore-legs,  that  it  may  be 
readily  moved  about.     For  out-door  work  a  strong,  slender  tripod  is  used, 
whose  jointed  legs  spread  out,  thus  enabling  one  to  secure  any  desired 
height  with  it,  but  it  often  acts  with  the  comic  and  incomprehensible 
treachery  and  perversity  of  the  American  mule.     Unless  extreme  care 
be  taken  in  its  management,  disastrous  results  are  of  frequent  occurrence. 
Never  get  out  of  patience  with  it. 

110.  OTHER  ARTICLES  NEEDED. — We  have  us  provided  now  with  the 
apparatus   required  to  make  a  photograph.      For   portraiture,  various 
other  articles   are   needed   before   we  can   enter  the  studio  for  work. 
Among  these  are  a  head-rest,  for  the  proper  support  of  the  figure,  chairs, 
backgrounds,  tables,  and  other  accessories,  with  side-  and  hand-screens 
in  number  varying  to  suit  the  fancy  of  the  user  and  the  variety  of  the 
subjects  which  come  to  him.     Upon  all  of  these  more  will  be  found  fur- 
ther on,  when  work  is  absolutely  entered  into.     First,  we  must  consider 
the  optical  tools  needed  for  our  purposes.     It  shall  be  done  in  the  next 
lesson. 


LESSON    C. 

THE     OBJECTIVE,    OR     LENS. 

111.  PERHAPS  the  most  important  of  all  the  apparatus  needed  by  the 
photographer  in  this  work  is  the  objective,  or  lens.  It  should  be  se- 
lected with  the  greatest  care,  though,  indeed,  our  opticians  now  produce 
lenses  of  such  exquisite  workmanship  that  one  runs  no  risk  in  making  a 
purchase  from  any  of  the  well-known  makers.  The  matter  of  selection, 
then,  lies  in  the  form  or  kind  of  lens  desired.  Any  sort  of  a  gun  will 
scare  a  bird,  and  any  sort  of  a  hammer  drive  a  nail.  So  will  any  sort  of 
a  lens  make  a  picture.  But  as  excellence  is  always  to  be  aimed  at  and 
after,  the  photographer  should  choose  the  lens  which  will  produce  the 
kind  or  class  of  work  he  desires,  of  the  best  quality.  No  lens  will  do  all 
classes  of  work,  any  more  than  one  hammer  will.  It  seems  to  be  a  rule 
in  optics  that  if  one  quality  is  secured  to  a  high  degree,  there  must  neces- 
sarily be  a  compensating  loss  in  some  other  direction.  For  example,  we 

111.  Light  is  propagated  in  a  straight  line.  We  cannot  see  around  a  corner.  If  a  ray 
of  direct  sunlight  passes  through  a  small  hole  of  any  given  shape  into  a  darkened  chamber, 
and  we  hold  a  screen  near  behind  the  aperture,  we  observe  a  bright  image  of  the  shape 
of  the  hole.  If  we  increase  the  distance  of  the  screen  and  the  aperture,  the  image  of  the 
hole  disappears  in  the  penumbra,  and  the  round  image  of  the  sun  takes  its  place ;  and,  if  the 
hole  is  small  enough,  you  will  see  not  only  the  image  «f  the  sun,  but  the  image  of  all  the 
external  objects  will  appear  likewise.  This  is  only  true  when  it  continues  in  a  medium  of 
the  same  density,  or  it  enters  a  medium  perpendicular  or  normal.  But,  if  a  ray  passes  from 
one  medium  into  another  of  different  density  obliquely,  its  direction  is  changed — it  is  re- 
fracted.— JOSEPH  ZENTMAYEB. 

I  have  long  noticed  the  peculiar  effects  produced  by  rapid-acting  lenses,  and  by  extra 
sensitive  chemicals.  In  the  one  case,  I  have  remarked  that  a  certain  softness,  which  is  the 
first  and  most  evident  peculiarity  of  negatives  made  by  rapid-acting  lenses  with  a  proper 
exposure,  interferes  very  materially  with  the  clear  brilliancy  of  definition  that  is  most  desir- 
able, and,  when  not  too  cold  and  hard,  is  the  highest  attainable  perfecting  chemical  effect; 
while  with  the  extra-sensitive  chemicals  the  contrary  is  the  most  usual  effect;  the  negative 
is  prone  to  hardness  and  intensity  (when  not  over-exposed,  and  then  it  is  fogged),  and  lack- 
ing in  definition,  a  very  bad  quality,  and  not  to  be  tolerated  except  under  compulsion. 

It  will  thus  be  clearly  seen  that  the  rapid-acting  lens,  when  used  with  full  aperture, 
smothers  the  image  with  its  full  volume  of  light;  while  the  lightning  collodion  does  not  give 
6  (  81  ) 


82  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

may  secure  depth  of  focus,  rapidity  of  action,  and  exquisite  definition, 
but  only  at  the  expense  of  the  size  of  the  image.  For  as  you  increase 
the  latter,  you  decrease  the  other  good  qualities  named. 

112.  All  lenses  either  scatter  (diverge)  or  concentrate  (converge)  the 
rays  of  light  which  are  transmitted  through  them.  They  are,  for  conven- 
ience in  grinding,  all  made  with  a  curved  surface  or  surfaces,  and  are 
usually  of  the  following  forms:  1,  double-convex;  2,  plano-convex;  3, 
concavo-convex;  4,  double-concave ;  5,  plano-concave ;  6,  meniscus.  The 
effect  of  the  curves  of  a  double-convex  lens,  say,  would  be  to  collect  the 
parallel  rays  of  light  which  pass  through  it  to  a  point  or  focus ,  while 
those  of  the  double-concave  lens  would  scatter  them,  and  the  other  forms 
more  or  less  converge  or  diverge,  according  to  their  forms.  In  order, 
then,  to  prevent  the  distortion  or  spherical  aberration  which  would  occur 
if  single  lenses  only  were  used,  opticians  resort  to  combinations  of  lenses 
of  various  forms  together,  and  to  the  use  of  diaphragms  or  stops.  But  a 
few  years  ago  the  photographer  had  but  two  grades  of  lenses  to  choose 
from — the  single  combination  and  the  double  combination,  the  former 
for  landscapes  and  the  latter  for  portraits.  Much  more  attention  has 
been  given  to  their  wants  of  late  years  by  opticians,  until  now  it  becomes 

a  properly  balanced  effect,  because  of  its  extreme  sensitiveness ;  the  diffused  light  admitted 
through  the  lens  (an  always  appreciable  amount)  fogs  the  shadows  under  a  fair  exposure, 
and  with  a  shorter  time  the  high-lights  are  unduly  affected,  and  harshness  results. — E.  M. 

ESTABROOKE. 

112.  Many  of  you  are  aware  that  in  nearly  all  human  eyes  there  exists  an  aberration,  also 
called  astigmation.  Although  in  its  effect  similar  to  the  astigmation  of  lenses,  just  mentioned, 
it  is  of  a  different  character.  Nature  intends  that  the  curves  of  the  cornea  and  crystalline 
lens  of  the  human  eye  should  be  spherical;  but  the  exceptions  seem  to  be  the  rule.  The 
curves  of  the  cornea  and  crystalline  lens  of  the  eye  are,  in  nearly  all  cases,  more  or  less 
elliptical,  egg-shaped,  and  consequently  have  in  one  meridian  a  longer  focus  than  in  the 
other.  If  such  an  eye  brings  the  image  of  a  line  parallel  to  one  meridian  to  a  focus  at  the 
retina,  the  images  of  lines  parallel  to  all  the  other  meridians  do  not  collect  at  the  retina, 
especially  the  one  at  right  angles  to  the  former,  and  a  distorted,  blurred  image  is  the  result. 
The  advancement  of  science  has  lately  enabled  our  oculists  to  correct  this  evil  by  spectacles, 
of  which  the  glasses  are  parts  of  cylinders  instead  of  spheres. — JOSEPH  ZENTMAYER. 

The  lenses  in  a  portrait  combination  are  occasionally  removed  from  their  cells  for  the 
purpose  of  cleaning.  Generally  speaking,  it  is  sufficient  to  unscrew  the  mounting  and  wipe 
with  chamois  leather  the  two  surfaces  exposed.  They  can  then  be  easily  replaced ;  for  the 
brass  fittings  are  usually  so  made,  that  if  by  mistake  the  cells  are  screwed  into  the  wrong 
places,  the  hood,  or  projecting  shade,  will  not  go  on.  The  mistake  is,  therefore,  easily  de- 
tected and  corrected.  When,  however,  the  lenses  themselves  are  taken  out  of  their  cells — 
knd,  except  for  curiosity,  this  is  rarely  required,  for  the  inner  surfaces  do  not  become  dirty, 


THE    OBJECTIVE,   OR  LENS.  83 

somewhat  a  difficult  matter  to  select.  Knowing  the  class  of  results  you 
want  to  secure,  however,  it  is  a  comparatively  easy  matter  to  find  what 
will  satisfy  you. 

113.  A  brief  description  of  the  various  forms,  and  an  idea  of  what 
they  are  intended  to  accomplish,  will  therefore  he  all  that  it  is  necessary 
to  give  here,  so  often   have  the  lines  and  principles  and  forms  of  the 
various  grades  and  kinds  of  lenses  been  given  in  more  pretentious  works. 
We  have  then  :  First,  the  "  single  "  combination,  for  use  in  making  pic- 
tures of  objects  without  motion,  when  the  time  of  exposure  is  not  neces- 
sarily a  consideration.     They  are  usually  of  longer  focus  than  the  double 
lenses,  and  therefore  a  much  larger  picture  may  be  obtained  with  one  of 
a  given  diameter  than  with  one  of  the  double  form.     Second,  the  "  double7' 
combination,  which  works  with  greater  rapidity  than  the  single,  for  the 
following  excellent  reasons  :  Behind  the  first  pair  of  lenses  a  second  pair 
is  placed,  which  so  intercepts  the  rays  refracted  from  them  as  to  cause 
them  to  focus  about  one-half  the  distance  of  the  other,  thus  making 
them  work  with  far  greater  rapidity.      Third,  we  have  the  "  triplet "  com- 
bination, wherein  a  third  pair  of  lenses  is  added,  or  such  a  combina- 
tion as  to  diminish  the  distortion  or  obliquity  of  the  rays  which  pass  from 
the  front  pair,  thus  making  it  the  most  desirable  form  for  landscape  work, 

114.  These  three  combinations  give  us,  then,  for  the  two  great  classes 

like  the  outer  ones — the  case  is  very  different,  for  they  may  be  variously  transposed,  and 
thus  rendered  incapable  of  producing  good  pictures.  There  is  a  risk,  also,  of  breaking  one 
of  the  glasses  of  the  back  lens  in  screwing  it  in,  unless  it  be  put  together  in  the  proper 
manner.  Many  good  lenses  have  been  condemned  as  hopelessly  bad  through  being  thus 
transposed. — JABEZ  HUGHES. 

113.  In  a  portrait  combination  there  are  four  lenses  in  all,  the  so-called  front  and  back 
lenses  being  really  each  formed  of  a  pair.     The  front  ones  are  always  cemented  together, 
and  may  thus  be  easily  taken  for  one  lens ;  the  back  pair  are  distinct,  and  are  usually  sepa- 
rated from  each  other  by  a  narrow  ring.     To  place  them  in  their  proper  positions,  proceed 
as  follows :  Take  the  front  lens,  the  pair  cemented  together,  and  observe  that  one  surface  is 
considerably  curved,  and  the  other  almost  flat ;  place  the  lens  in  its  cell,  so  that  when  screwed 
into  the  tube  the  curved  side  will  be  to  the  sitter.     The  two  glasses  forming  the  back  lens 
are  very  unlike  each  other ;  one  is  thick  at  the  centre  and  thin  at  the  edge,  the  other  thick 
at  the  edge  and  thin  at  the  centre ;  put  the  thin-edged  one  first  into  the  cell,  resting  on  the 
least  curved  side ;  next  put  in  the  ring,  and  then  the  thick-edged  glass,  concave  side  towards 
the  other  lens  ;  fix  them  in  their  places  with  the  part  provided,  and  screw  the  cell  in  its  place. 
— JABEZ  HUGHES. 

114.  With  many  portrait  lenses  there  is  an  arrangement  whereby  the  front  lens  may  be 
used  as  a  landscape  lens  ;  to  use  it  for  this  purpose  proceed  as  follows  :  Unscrew  the  back 
lens  and  lay  it  aside  altogether,  as  it  is  only  required  in  the  double  combination  ;  then  remove 


84  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

of  work,  portraiture  and  landscape,  the  necessary  rapidity  and  correct 
ness  of  figure  or  freedom  from  distortion,  with  all  the  roundness,  depth, 
detail,  and  sharpness  of  outline  which  we  see  in  nature.  As  to  dimen- 
sion, that  is  governed  hy  the  length  of  focus  of  the  lens  used.  Given 
a  lens  of  a  certain  diameter,  the  size  of  the  picture  will  increase  with 
the  focal  length  of  the  lens,  and  vice  versa.  It  is  also  increased  or  dimin- 
ished according  to  the  convergence  or  divergence  of  the  lens. 

115.  There  are  four  other  points  which  must  be  borne  in  mind  when 
operating  with  lenses.  1.  If  you  place  the  lens  too  near  the  object  to  be 
photographed,  or  fail  to  use  the  proper  diaphragm,  so  as  to  stop  the  action 
of  the  lateral  rays,  you  lose  definition,  obtain  an  insipid  image,  and,  for 
your  pains,  have  a  distorted  picture.  2.  If  you  use  too  large  a  diaphragm, 
or  increase  the  length  of  focus  in  the  camera,  you  lose  a  quality  in  your 
pictures  known  as  depth  of  focus.  3.  The  illumination  of  your  subject, 
the  size  of  the  diaphragm  used,  and  the  focal  length  of  your  lens,  all 
govern  the  time  of  exposure.  4.  Some  lenses  are  so  carelessly  "  cor- 
rected for  color  "  as  to  cause  the  rays  to  overlap  one  another,  and  thus 
destroy  the  quality  of  definition. 

the  brass  hood  before  the  front  lens ;  next  unscrew  the  front  lens  and  rescrew  it  in  the  place 
where  the  back  lens  was.  In  doing  this  the  flat  surface  will  be  presented  to  the  object.  The 
lens  tube  may  be  now  put  on  the  camera,  and  the  central  stops  will  be  in  their  proper  place 
for  use.  As  the  focus  of  the  front  lens,  when  thus  used  singly,  is  much  longer  than  when 
used  in  combination  with  the  back  lens,  the  picture  it  will  yield  is  proportionally  larger, 
but  a  much  smaller  stop  must  be  employed. — JABEZ  HUGHES. 

115.  Now,  knowing  all  the  defects  of  lenses,  and  the  different  modes  of  correcting  the 
same,  let  us  look  back  to  that  primitive  instrument — the  pinhole  camera.  The  pinhole 
camera  is  free  from  all  the  errors,  as  spherical  and  chromatic  aberrations,  distortion,  curvature 
of  field,  astigmation,  and  the  only  objection  against  it  is  the  extremely  small  aperture. 
What  an  amount  of  speculation  and  hard  labor  of  the  most  eminent  men  was  necessary  to 
furnish  a 'substitute,  equally  free  from  errors,  having  a  larger  aperture,  giving  a  brighter 
image.  And,  even  now,  none  of  the  aberrations  can  be  completely  corrected,  and  the  best 
that  can  be  done,  and  that  for  a  limited  aperture  only,  is  to  reduce  the  errors  so  far  as  to 
diminish  their  extension,  so  as  to  make  them  appear  to  our  eye  at  a  smaller  angle  than  the 
eye  is  able  to  distinguish.  In  lenses  used  as  objectives,  where  the  image  is  magnified  by 
high  eye-pieces,  even  that  is  extremely  difficult,  as  the  errors  are  also  magnified.  Our  most 
celebrated  opticians,  such  as  Fraunhofer,  never  attempted  to  give  a  telescope  objective  a 
larger  aperture  than  the  focus  divided  by  ten,  except  in  very  small  pocket  telescopes.  And 
his  larger  telescope,  the  one  he  made  for  the  Dorpat  Observatory,  and  which  he  considered 
his  best  objective,  has  a  focus  of  one  hundred  and  sixty  inches,  while  the  aperture  is  only 
one  hundred  and  eight  lines,  that  is  one-seventeenth  of  the  focal  length,  and  its  highest 
magnification  is  seven  hundred  and  twenty  times.  The  larger  telescopes  of  Dollond  are 
nearly  twice  as  long.  The  same  artist,  Fraunhofer,  took  precaution  to  warn  young  opticians 


THE    OBJECTIVE,   OR    LENS.  85 

116.  If  a  lens  be  found  faulty  in  this  respect,  it  should  be  returned  to 
the  seller.  Indeed,  in  these  days  there  is  no  reason  why  a  photographer 
should  "manage"  with  a  lens  in  the  least  bit  defective.  Many  pages 
could  be  filled  describing  the  various  methods  of  testing  lenses;  their 
varied  constructions  and  grades,  and  abilities.  That  seems  so  much  to 
be  the  business  of  the  dealer  in  them  as  to  be  uncalled  for  here,  and  it  is 
omitted.  If  you  want  a  new  lens,  you  are  supposed  to  know  what  you 
want  it  to  do,  to  begin  with.  The  dealer  in  them  should  be  able  to  sup- 
ply you  with  what  you  want,  and,  as  a  usual  thing,  is  willing  to  exchange 
if  your  desires  are  not  met  with  in  the  first  trial.  There  are  so  many 
makers  now  that  one  has  the  right  to  expect  every  opportunity  to  select 
the  best,  or  at  least  what  he  believes  will  answer  his  purpose  best.  The 
excellence  of  your  results  and  the  enjoyment  you  will  have  in  producing 
them,  depends  so  much  upon  your  decision  in  this  matter,  that  you  ought 
to  use  every  means  to  secure  a  good  instrument. 

and  amateurs  not  to  listen  to  the  very  natural  desire  to  try  their  skill  on  large  apertures,  and 
giving  higher  magnification,  if  they  do  not  wish  to  be  disappointed,  and  lose  time  and  money. 
But  the  school  of  experience  seems  to  be  the  only  one  to  cure  this  desire. — JOSEPH  ZENTMAYER. 

There  are  two  causes,  from  either  of  which  such  a  defect  might  arise.  It  may  be  that  the 
sensitive  plate  does  not  occupy  precisely  the  same  plane  as  the  ground-glass.  This  you  can 
only  certainly  ascertain  by  very  careful  measurement,  although  it  is  possible  that  a  slight 
examination  will  suggest  the  existence  of  such  a  defect.  Examine  the  dark-slide,  and  see 
if  the  corners  on  which  the  plate  rests  are  all  firm  and  in  their  proper  position.  If  these  are 
all  right,  proceed  to  measure.  Take  out  the  lens,  and  measure  carefully  from  the  aperture 
in  the  front  to  the  ground-glass ;  then  remove  the  ground-glass,  place  the  dark-slide  con- 
taining a  plain  plate  of  glass  in  its  place,  and  measure  again  ;  if  the  distance  coincides,  all  is 
right  there  ;  if  not,  make  the  proper  correction.  If  the  fault  is  not  in  the  position  of  the  plate 
and  ground-glass,  it  may  be  in  the  lens.  In  some  lenses  the  visual  and  chemical  foci  are  not 
coincident — that  is,  the  rays  which  come  to  a  focus,  and  give  a  sharp  image  to  the  eye  on  one 
plane,  come  to  a  chemical  foci  on  another  plane.  In  this  case,  there  is  no  remedy  but  obtaining 
a  better  lens,  or,  else,  always  making  an  allowance  for  the  defect  in  focussing. — UNKNOWN. 

116.  I  give  below  a  resume  of  tests  made  in  selecting  lenses  for  a  friend.  I  started  with  no 
fixed  ideal  which  the  performance  of  the  instruments  was  to  equal.  I  did  not  expecta  mammoth 
to  "  cut  "  in  the  same  proportion  as  a  f  or  2B.  Knowing  something  of  the  rapidly  increasing 
ratio  of  the  imperfections  that  have  to  be  equalized  and  corrected  (the  spherical  aberration 
increases  as  the  square  of  the  aperture,  the  chromatic  as  the  cube),  I  resolved  to  be  contented 
with  the  best  that  leading  opticians  offered :  and  here  I  will  say  that,  as  far  as  I  can,  I  shall 
refrain  from  indicating  who  the  makers  were.  The  lenses  will  be  designated  as  A  and  B.  A 
was  made  to  order,  subject  to  approval.  B  was  one  of  a  number  of  the  same  size  ready  made. 

Test  first,  of  price.     A  cost  over  fifty  per  cent,  more  than  B. 

Test  second,  for  whiteness  of  glass.  The  lenses  were  unscrewed,  and  placed  side  by  side 
on  white  paper.  B  proved  to  be  of  much  clearer,  whiter  glass  than  A,  which  latter  had  a 
rather  yellowish-green  tint. 


86  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

117.  The  use  of  the  diaphragm  now  demands  your  consideration. 
Some  idea  of  its  mission  and  value  has  already  been  given.  The  dia- 
phragm is  a  piece  of  metal,  wood,  or  card-board,  with  an  aperture  in  the 
centre,  varying  in  size,  and  is  placed  before  or  behind  the  lens  both  to 
stop  or  prevent  the  action  of  certain  rays  upon  the  lens,  and  to  neutralize 
their  effect  upon  the  negative,  even  though  they  do  pass  through.  The 
diaphragm  is,  therefore,  also  called  a  "  stop." 

Test  third,  for  comparative  ratio  of  aperture  to  focal  length,  B  was  by  measure  a  fraction 
of  an  inch  larger  in  diameter  than  A.  The  focal  lengths  were  obtained  by  measuring  the 
distances  of  the  image  from  the  object  (dots  twelve  inches  apart  on  white  card);  the  image 
was  in  each  case  made  the  same  size  as  the  object  when  focussed  with  the  full  opening.  Had 
a  small  diaphragm  been  used  there  might  have  been  an  error,  as  in  this  case  there  is  some 
latitude  in  focussing.  The  distances  when  quartered  gave  pretty  nearly  the  equivalent  solar 
foci.  B  had  a  somewhat  longer  focus  than  A,  but  in  each  case  there  was  about  the  same 
ratio  between  the  squares  of  the  apertures  and  the  focal  lengths  respectively,  from  which  it 
might  be  expected  that  they  would  work  in  nearly  equal  time,  while  the  superior  whiteness 
of  B  would  be  an  element  in  its  favor. 

Test  fourth,  for  actual  time  of  working.  This  test  was  very  carefully  conducted,  repeated 
several  times  on  different  days,  always  about  noon,  with  a  clear  sky.  A  still  subject  in  half- 
tone was  used,  and  care  taken  to  distinguish  between  an  increase  of  intensity,  which  might 
make  the  detail  in  the  shadows  more  apparent,  and  actual  amount  of  detail  obtained  with 
similar  and  dissimilar  exposures.  These  trials  showed  that  A  with  forty  seconds  equalled  B 
with  forty-five  seconds,  a  difference  of  but  little  practical  value. 

Test  fifth,  for  definition,  made  by  copying  an  engraved  head  of  four  inches  length  to  the 
same  size  with  full  apertures.  Very  decided  in  favor  of  B. 

Test  sixth,  for  flatness  of  field,  made  by  copying  a  newspaper  to  actual  size,  and  by  push- 
ing in  the  ground-glass  till  the  centre  letters  were  barely  sharp.  Much  in  favor  of  B,  which 
had  a  field  of  sharp  letters  almost  double  the  linear  extent  of  A,  though  it  \ras  surprising 
how  small  the  extent  of  apparently  flat,  well-defined  field  was  in  either  case.  When,  after- 
wards, the  lenses  were  tried  on  standing  figures  the  comparison  had  the  same  result. 

Test  seventh,  for  marginal  definition,  conducted  with  the  newspaper  as  above,  by  focussing 
as  sharply  as  possible  the  letters  that  came  on  the  outside  of  the  field.  A  was  nowhere  with 
B  in  this  test. 

Test  eighth,  for  depth.  This  I  have  always,  by  theory,  held  to  be  a  quality  decided,  other 
things  being  equal,  by  the  ratio  of  the  aperture  to  the  focal  length  ;  and  these  trials  only  con- 
vinced me  of  the  correctness  of  that  opinion,  as  there  was  no  perceptible  difference.  A 
finely  engraved  card  was  focussed,  and  then  slid  to  and  from  the  lens  on  a  line,  as  nearly  as 
practicable  coincident  with  the  optical  axis  of  the  lens. 

The  above  seemed  to  include  all  the  important  qualities  of  portrait  lenses  valuable  in  prac- 
tice ;  and,  to  recapitulate,  gave  tests  first,  fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh,  in  favor  of  B; 
tests  third  and  eighth,  neutral ;  test  fourth,  in  favor  of  A  so  slightly  that  I  formed  in  my 
mind  the  conviction  that  while  the  "best  is  the  cheapest,"  the  highest  priced  is  not  always 
so. — W.  J.  BAKER. 

117.  The  accompanying  diagram  will  give  the  student  a  good  idea  of  the  action  of  the 
diaphragm  on  a  portrait  lens.  The  dark  lines,  A  A,  represent  the  depth  and  direction  of  the 


THE    OBJECTIVE,    OR    LENS. 


87 


FIG.  31. 


AT", 


118.  By  the  use  of  diaphragms  the  definition  of  the  picture  is  in- 
creased, and  they  increase  the  focal  depth.  This,  however,  is  at  the 
expense  of  light,  and  a  consequent  increase  in  the  time  of  exposure. 
This  latter  drawback  compels  us,  in  portraiture  especially,  to  give  up 
some  of  the  qualities  we  should  like  to  secure,  lest  a  too  long  exposure 
try  the  patience  of  our  sitter  too  severely,  or,  if  he  keep  still,  cause  him 
to  assume  an  unpleasing  expression.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  in  pho- 
tography, as  in  life,  each  advantage  gained  is  at  the  cost  of  some  other, 
in  a  measure,  and  we  must  be  content  with  a  fair  medium  or  measure 
of  what  is  desirable. 

focus  of  the  lens  at  full  aperture.  The  curvature  of  the  field  is  purposely  exaggerated  in 
order  better  to  show  the  subsequent  result.  We  will  take  the 
fall  aperture  to  be  four  and  a  half  inches;  it  will  be  observed 
that  in  this  condition  the  field  is  curved — which  gives  bad  defi- 
nition at  the  margins — that  the  depth  of  focus  is  limited,  which 
gives  enlargement  and  distortion  to  all  projections,  and  that  the 
size  of  the  picture  is  small.  Now  on  placing  a  diaphragm  of  three  inches  aperture  between 
the  combinations,  the  result  is  represented  by  the  dotted  lines  B  B  ;  it  is  then  seen  that  the 
field  is  extended  and  depth  of  focus  increased  both  before  and  behind  the  central  point  D, 
the  consequence  of  which  is  that  a  larger  field  of  clear  definition  is  shown  in  the  picture, 
and  features  which  before  were  fuzzy  and  enlarged  in  their  form,  assume  their  natural  aspect. 

If,  to  include  more  objects  in  the  composition,  or  from  other  motives,  still  greater  sharp- 
ness is  desirable,  a  diaphragm  of  one  and  a  half  inch  opening  is  substituted  ;  immediately  the 
qualities  recapitulated  above  are  still  more  improved,  as  seen  in  the  lines  c  c.  Light  has 
now,  however,  been  much  diminished  by  the  small  remaining  area  of  aperture,  and  very 
considerable  addition  becomes  necessary  to  the  time  of  exposure. — LAKE  PRICE. 

118.  A  represents  a  section  of  a  four  and  one-half  inch  double  or  portrait  lens  at  its 
full  aperture,  with  the  manner  in  which  the  pencils  of  light  from  the  subject  pass  through 
the  combinations,  and  are  refracted  by  them  to  the  film.  A  is  the  front,  B  the  back  lens,  cc 
the  central  rays,  EE  the  lateral  ones,  ECE  the  line 
of  focus  at  the  film. 

The  attention  of  the  reader  must  be  directed  to  the 
width  of  the  pencils  refracted  from  the  lens  at  this 
aperture,  and  the  obliquity  of  the  direction  of  the 
lateral  ones,  E  E,  in  order  that  he  may  observe  the 
changes  which  the  application  of  a  diaphragm  will 
at  once  effect  in  them.  B  is  the  same  lens  with 
the  pencils  of  light  drawn  to  scale;  a  diaphragm, 
DD,  of  two  inches  aperture,  A,  is  now  added  between 
the  combinations,  the  effect  of  which  has  been  to 
diminish  the  obliquity  and  give  more  parallelism  |,o 
the  rays  proceeding  to  the  film,  and  more  depth  in  the  focus.  On  contrasting  the  width 
of  the  pencils  EE  with  those  in  the  last  diagram,  they  will  be  -found  to  be  diminished  in 
their  diameter  by  one-half,  with  more  accuracy  of  delineation,  but  at  the  loss  of  rapidity  of 


FIG.  32. 


88  WILSON'S    PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

119.  The  proper  use  of  ptops  can  only  be  attained  by  careful  observa- 
tion and  practice.     It  becomes,  like  exposure  itself,  almost  a  matter  of 
inspiration — of  feeling,  at  least, — and  no  rule  can  be  laid  down.     A  few 
hints,  though,  may  not  be  out  of  place.     Each  lens  is  usually  supplied 
with  five  or  six  stops  of  varying  sizes.     The  light,  the  subject,  and  the 
quality  of  picture  you  desire  are  the  three  governing  items  in  the  em- 
ployment of  stops.     Study  all  these,  and  experiment  with  all  the  stops. 
Usually  focus  with  the  open  lens  or  the  largest  stop,  and  then  shift  for 
the  one  most  desirable  to  use  for  the  exposure. 

120.  Photography  is  as  susceptible  to  the  variations  of  time  of  ex- 
posure, the  quality  and  conditions  of  light,  the  atmosphere,  the  chem- 
icals, and  the  diaphragm  employed,  as  sound  is  to  the  instrument,  and 
the  other  means  employed  for  its  production.     Hence,  there  is  always 
much  to  learn,  and  great  room  for  careful  experiment  and  practice  in  all 
departments.     In  no  other  is  it  more  so  than  in  the  application  of  the 
stop  to  the  lens.     Therefore,  employ  spare  time  in  studying  this  depart- 
ment of  your  work,  that  when  you  are  required  to  produce  the  best 
results,  you  may  go  about  it  most  intelligently. 

execution  by  the  abstraction  of  a  corresponding  illuminating  area.  The  length  of  the  focal 
distance  from  the  back  lens  to  the  film  is  increased,  but  with  a  well-corrected  lens  of  long 
focus,  the  field,  under  such  conditions  of  aperture,  is  very  nearly  flat. — LAKE  PRICE. 

119.  Enough  has  been  placed  before  the  reader  to  show  him  that  AREA  OF  APERTURE  is  the 
very  helm  which   regulates  and  guides  the  photographic  action  ;    if  too  much  diminished, 
not  only  the  time  of  exposure  becomes  irksome,  and  the  expression  of  the  sitter's  countenance 
suffers,  but  a  harsh  and  unnatural  edginess  characterizes  the  picture.     If,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  is  allowed  to  be  too  great,  the  oblique  pencils,  which  it  should  have  corrected,  interfere  with 
the  perfection  of  the  image,  and  distorted  forms  and  misty  outlines  are  seen. — LAKE  PRICE. 

120.  It  is  often  necessary  to  know  the  focal  length  of  a  lens  or  combination  of  lenses,  es- 
pecially in  photography  ;  but  if  no  plano-convex  lens  of  known  focal  length  is  at  hand,  for 
the  purpose  of  comparing  the  size  of  the  image,  the  following  way  may  be  adopted  :  first, 
focus  the  lens  for  a  very  distant  object,  on  a  screen,  and  mark  the  position  of  the  screen.    Do 
not  move  the  lens,  but  place  a  bright  object,  about  twice  the  focus  of  the  lens,  in  front  of  it, 
as  near  as  you  can  suppose  ;  now  move  the  screen  about  the  same  distance  from  the  lens  as 
the  object  was  placed,  and  focus  thereupon.     If  you  find  the  object  and  the  image  not  of  ex- 
actly the  same  size,  move  object  and  screen  accordingly,  and  focus  sharp,  until  the  object  and 
image  are  precisely  the  same  size  ;  mark  the  position  of  the  screen  again,  and  the  distance 
of  the  first  and  second  mark  is  the  focal  length  of  the  lens,  or  the  equivalent  focus  of  a  com- 
bination of  lenses. — JOSEPH  ZENTMAYER. 

In  conclusion,  a  few  words  yet  about  treating  your  lenses.  Always  keep  them  from 
light  and  dust  when  not  in  use ;  never  drop  them  on  the  floor,  and  when  dusty  or  soiled 
clean  them  carefully  with  a  piece  of  old  linen  or  old  silk  handkerchief.  From  sad  experience 
I  almost  feel  inclined  to  add  to  this  :  Never  loan  them  out. — R.  BENECKE. 


LESSON    D. 

THE     DARK-ROOM. 

121.  THE  dark-room  for  the  manipulations  of  the  plate  should  be 
convenient  to  the  glass  studio,  so  located  that  it  can  be  thoroughly 
ventilated  at  top  and  floor,  and  kept  of  even  temperature  all  the  year 
around.  It  should  be  as  large  as  your  space  will  admit,  say  not  less  than 
twelve  by  fifteen  feet.  It  should  be  provided  with  a  developing  sink, 
another  for  fixing,  and  a  third,  under  a  tap,  for  washing  the  plates 
thoroughly.  Just  enough  shelving  to  accommodate  the  needful  articles 
of  use  in  the  dark-room,  and  no  more. 

121.  The  dark-room  should  be,  of  course,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  skylight.  It 
should  he  wholly  lined,  floor,  sides,  and  ceiling,  with  wood,  and  painted  in  oil  of  a  light 
yellowish  color,  which  allows  of  its  being  wiped  off,  as  occasion  may  require,  with  a  damp 
cloth.  If  the  room  happens  to  be  papered,  and  the  ceiling  white- washed,  the  paper, 
if  in  good  order,  should  be  painted  as  above  described ;  the  ceiling  must  be  scraped  off  and 
also  painted.  No  projecting  ledges  must  be  permitted  as  deposits  for  dust.  This  room 
should  contain  absolutely  nothing  except  what  appertains  immediately  thereto,  such  as 
bath-holders,  a  shelf  to  stand  the  plate-holders,  a  small  shelf  handy  to  the  sinks  for  the  de- 
velopers and  strengthening  solutions,  and  a  small  shelf  to  contain  .the  plates  and  collodion 
vials.  Everything  else  in  the  shape  of  bottles,  chemicals,  boxes,  etc.,  must  be  banished. 
This  room  need  not  be  larger  than  eight  by  ten  feet  square. 

A  sash  about  two  feet  square,  glazed  with  yellow  (orange-yellow)  glass  should  be  let  in, 
immediately  opposite  the  tank,  at  such  an  elevation  that  the  operator,  in. developing,  need 
not  stoop  or  bend  over  too  much.  This  room  is  never  to  be  swept  out,  but  a  mop  is  pro- 
vided, with  which  the  room  must  be  mopped  out  every  morning  before  commencing  work. 
The  sash  above  alluded  to  must  be  provided  with  shutters  or  covers,  that  more  or  less  light 
may  be  shut  out  as  desired.  I  need  scarcely  add  that  every  particle  of  white  light  must  be 
carefully  excluded.  "When  such  a  window  is  impracticable,  you  may  use  either  gas  or  a 
lamp,  inclosed  in  a  lantern-frame  glazed  with  orange  glass.  Do  not  commit  the  too 
common  error  of  having  this  room  too  dark.  It  should  be  sufficiently  light  for  all  operations 
without  the  least  fumbling.  The  shelf  containing  the  plate-holders  should  be  covered  with 
thick  bibulous  paper,  for  absorbing  all  drippings  of  silver,  and  for  resting  the  edge  of  the 
plate  a  moment  or  so  after  its  immediate  extraction  from  the  bath.  Above  all,  do  not 
neglect  the  great  precaution  of  thorough  ventilation.  If  possible,  a  trap-door  should  be  let 
into  the  ceiling,  or  else  the  door  should  face  the  window,  when  a  draught  of  air  can  at  any 
time  be  admitted. — ELBERT  ANDERSON. 

(89) 


90 


WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 


122.  A  cupboard  for  chemicals  is  also  a  good  arrangement.  The  most 
rigid  cleanliness  should  always  be  practised  here,  and  "house-cleaning" 
of  frequent  occurrence.  All  white  light  should  be  excluded,  and  only 
that  which  is  yellow,  ruby,  or  orange  admitted.  A  great  convenience,  not 
only,  but  a  great  necessity  in  the  dark-room,  is  plenty  of  clear,  pure 
water,  and  a  proper  arrangement  of  the  tanks,  with  a  means  of  saving 
such  waste  as  is  of  value,  and  of  getting  rid  of  the  rest  without  injury 
to  the  health.  Dust  in  every  shape  and  form  should  be  most  enthusi- 
astically opposed  in  the  dark-room.  It  should  not  be  allowed  to  enter 
the  door;  it  should  not  be  brought  in,  or  created  by  allowing  the  drip 
from  your  solutions  to  crystallize  on  the  floor.  Walk  the  floor  gently ; 
wipe  it  up  vigorously  with  damp  cloths  daily. 

122.  THE  TANKS. — The  arrangement  of  the  tanks  for  developing  and  washing  may  be 
something  after  the  following  plan  : 

Immediately  in  front  of  the  yellow-glazed  sash,  A  u  (which  should  be  constructed  so  as  to 
raise  and  lower  like  an  ordinary  window),  are  placed  two  trays,  c  D,  about  two  feet  long  by 
eighteen  inches  wide,  and  three  inches  deep.  The  water  is  admitted  from  a  reservoir  by  a 
pipe  containing  two  cocks,  E  r,  which  are  so  constructed  as  to  give  a  smooth  crystal  bar  of 
water  without  spattering.  The  plate  is  to  be  developed  over  the  tank  D,  and  well  washed, 

buih  on  the  back  as  well  as  the  front.  The  sil- 
ver, which  is  perfectly  precipitated  by  the  iron 
in  the  developer,  and  also  the  excess  of  nitrate 
being  washed  off,  flows  from  the  tray  D  through 
the  waste-pipe  H  into  the  tank  G.  Observe  that 
the  pipe  H  should  be  led  to  the  side  of  the 
tank  G,  the  water  thus  flowing  against  this  side 
is  prevented  from  stirring  up  the  settled  silver 
on  the  bottom  of  the  tank  G.  The  negative, 
after  being  removed  from  the  hypo,  tray  (which 
should  be  in  a  convenient  neighborhood),  is 
drained  a  few  minutes,  and  then  thoroughly 
washed  over  the  tray  c,  the  water  flowing 
through  the  pipe  J  into  the  general  waste-pipe 
L.  Into  the  tank  G  is  inserted  a  stop-cock.  K, 
four  inches  from  the  bottom  of  the  tank ;  this 
cock  is  connected  with  the  waste-pipe  K  by  means  of  an  india-rubber  hose,  which  may  be 
removed  and  replaced  at  pleasure.  No  further  treatment  is  required.  The  precipitated  sil- 
ver settles  quietly  down  during  the  night ;  the  water,  being  quite  clear  above,  may  be  drawn 
off  every  morning. 

Finally,  this  room  should  be  provided  with  a  gas-stove,  upon  which  is  placed  a  tin  of  water 
during  the  winter,  for  maintaining  a  healthy  and  breathable  atmosphere ;  a  thermometer 
should  be  hung  conveniently,  and  an  even  temperature  kept  up  between  sixty  and  seventy 
legrees  Fahrenheit. — ELBKRT  ANDKRSON. 


FIG. 


THE    DARK-KOOM. 


91 


123.  As  in   any  other  work,  so  in  the  dark-room,  the  photographer 
should  look  well  after  his  light  supply.     If  the  light  is  allowed  to  come 
into  the  dark-room  from  the  side,  it  should  be  from  a  window  sufficiently 
low  and  sufficiently  forward  to  enable  one  to  receive  a  good  light  under- 
neath the  plate  when  held  for  development.     The  drawing  below  supplies 
an  admirable  model,  though  supplied  with  rather  more  than  properly 
belongs  to  the  work  of  the  dark-room. 

124.  REQUISITES   FOR   THE  DARK-ROOM. — The  dark-room  is,  or  should 
be,  the  operator's  pride.     Hither  he  sends  forth  the  wondrous  mysteries 
which  are  to  win  him  fortune  and  fame,  and  all  depends  upon  his  man- 
ners and  manipulations  therein.     It  should  be  supplied  with  every  need- 
ful article,  of  the  best  quality,  without  stint,  and  kept  everlastingly  clean. 


FIG.  34. 


123.  The  dark-room  should  be  arranged  with  the  greatest  care  :  in  it  the  sensitive  plates 
are  prepared,  and  the  various  delicate  proc- 
esses which  have  to  be  guarded  from  day- 
light are  performed.  "We  have  said  that 
every  ray  of  white  light  must  be  carefully 
excluded.  It  should  be  conveniently  ar- 
ranged, so  that  the  operator  has  ready  at 
hand  all  the  things  he  requires  while  ma- 
nipulating, which  he  has  to  do  as  quickly  as 
possible.  A  narrow  table  is  fixed  to  the 
wall  for  supporting  the  sensitizing  baths, 
which  have  to  be  placed  in  a  somewhat  in- 
clined position.  There  should  be  a  row  of 
shelves  for  holding  the  bottles  of  collodion 
and  other  chemicals.  It  is  well  to  have  a 
sink  near  the  table,  with  a  tap  above  it 
for  washing  the  proofs ;  this  tap  may  be 
advantageously  fitted  with  a  piece  of  india- 
rubber  tubing,  having  a  rose  at  the  end, 
so  that  the  water  may  be  quickly  and 
easily  applied  over  a  large  surface. — G. 

TlSSANDIER. 

For  real  comfort  and  convenience,  I  like 
one  grand,  large  tank  for  the  dark-room 
first,  in  which  I  place  all  the  smaller  tanks, 
as  described  by  Mr.  Elbert  Anderson  in  his 
excellent  work.  The  real  advantage  of 
such  a  large  tank  is  this  :  It  saves  the  floor 
from  the  splashings  of  the  solutions  and  the 
consequent  damage  done  to  the  plates  by  the  raising  of  crystals  in  the  air  by  the  feet, 
which  are  sure  to  cau?c  pin-hole-  — G.  \V.  WALLACE. 


92 


WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 


FIG.  35. 


Besides  the  required  chemicals,  we  need  a  glass  bath-holder  for  our  sen- 
vsitizing  solution ;  a  silver  dipper  for  lowering  the  collodionized  glass 
plate  into  the  bath ;  pouring-bottles  for  collodion;  developing-trays  and 
bottles;  draining-racks ;  graduated  measures;  funnels;  a  spirit-lamp; 
tanks ;  dishes ;  a  goodly  supply  of  water,  and  a  multitude  of  minor  use- 
ful articles,  whose  names  and  use  will  be  explained  at  the  proper  time. 

12f>.  The  ventilation  of  the  dark-room  is  a  matter  which  must  be  rig- 
idly attended  to.  At  the  floor,  openings  a  few  inches  high  should  be  cut, 
the  light  kept  out  by  inward  strips,  for  the  poisonous  fumes  usually  work 

downward.  A  plan  devised  by  Mr. 
Nelson  K.  Cherrill  is  shown  by  Fig. 
35.  It  consists-of  a  long  box  of  any 
length  required,  with  -an  opening  (A  B) 
all  along  the  lower  side  of  the  front, 
and  a  similar  one  (o  P)  all  along 
the  upper  side  at  the  back.  The 
two  inward  partitions  (D  D)  are  made, 
one  extending  from  the  bottom  to 
within  six  inches  from  the  top,  the 
other  from  the  top  to  within  six 
inches  of  the  bottom.  The  box  is 
about  eighteen  inches  square.  The 
opening  in  front  (A  B)  should  be  the  same  with  the  space  left  above  and 
below  D  D,  and  also  the  same  as  the  opening  o  P.  The  other  spaces 
should  be  about  the  same,  say  six  inches.  There  is  a  door  at  F ;  the 
passage  of  air  is  shown  by  the  arrows.  ~No  light  can  enter,  s  s  is 
intended  for  a  zinc  shade,  fitted  outside,  to  protect  from  the  weather. 
Blacken  the  whole  inside.  One  should  be  at  the  floor  and  one  at  the 
top  of  the  dark-room,  to  suit  all  seasons.  The  scale  of  the  drawing  is 
one  inch  to  a  foot. 


LESSOR    E. 

PREPARATION      OF     THE     GLASS. 

126.  Too  much  care  cannot  be  given  to  the  selection  of  glass  for  pho- 
tographic use.     It  should  be  flat,  clean,  and  free  from  scratches,  bubbles, 
and  rust.     Fortunately,  it  is  not  difficult  to  find  such  in  the  market ;  so 
that  about  the  only  room  there  is  for  care,  is  in  seeing  that  the  plates  are 
perfectly  clean  ^before  they  are  coated  with  collodion  or  immersed  in  the 
bath.     There  are  various  ways  of  securing  this — one  being  by  the  exer- 
cise of  manual  labor,  and  the  other  by  the  employment  of  a  preliminary 
coating  of  albumen. 

127.  The  use  of  the  albumen  substratum  is  now  the  most  general.     It 

126.  For  cleaning  glass  and  bottles,  the  best  I  have  ever  found  is,  viz. : 

Saturated  Solution  of  Bichromate  of  Potash,         ....       2  ounces. 

Hydrochloric  Acid,          .........       1  ounce. 

Water, 5  ounces. 

Let  the  glass  or  bottles  remain  in  this  twenty-four  hours,  or  until  clean  ;  wash  well,  and  I 
guarantee  you  will  have  clean  glass  ;  even  old  varnished  negatives,  or  anything,  it  will  clean 
them. — W.  B.  CRITCHFIELD. 

The  task  of  bringing  glass  plates  to  a  condition  of  perfect  cleanness  is  a  well-recognized 
nuisance  in  photography,  and  anything  which  alleviates  it  will  doubtless  be  received  with 
satisfaction.  None  of  the  methods  now  in  use  seem  to  give  satisfactory  results  without  much 
trouble.  It  is  otherwise  with  that  which  I  am  about  to  describe,  and  I  think  I  may  say  that 
no  one  who  tries  it  will  ever  employ  any  other.  A  convenient  and  large  porcelain  tray  is 
to  be  appropriated  to  this  purpose.  In  it  is  placed  the  following  solution  : 

Sulphuric  Acid, 1  ounce. 

Bichromate  of  Potash, 1       " 

Water, 1  pint, 

preparing  a  sufficient  quantity  to  cover  as  many  glasses  as  are  to  be  cleaned.  Glasses  left  in  this 
solution  over  night  (except  in  very  obstinate  cases,  which  may  require  a  little  longer  treat- 
ment) will  generally  be  found  to  require  only  rinsing  off,  or  at  most  a  gentle  rubbing,  to  be 
perfectly  clean.  Grease-spots,  obstinate  stains,  remains  of  old  collodion,  and  all  the  other 
troubles,  lose  their  hold,  and  the  task  of  cleaning  loses  almost  all  its  trouble. — M.  CAREY  LEA. 

127.  To  bring  the  albumen  into  a  suitable  condition,  and  preserve  it  ready  for  use,  is  the 
problem  to  be  solved.     This  is  accomplished  in  the  simplest  manner  possible  :  Take  a  wide- 
mouth  bottle  of  the  capacity,  say,  of  sixteen  fluid  ounces  (provided  with  a  well-fitting  cork), 

(93) 


94  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

is  the  easiest  and  tlie  surest.  It  is  less  liable  to  cause  failure,  provided 
fresh  eggs  be  used  and  the  directions  given  are  followed.  Previous  to 
any  other  treatment,  the  plates  should  be  roughened  on  the  edges  and 
corners  by  means  of  a  file  or  by  emery-paper,  or  by  drawing  the  edges 
of  the  plates  together.  This  saves  the  fingers  from  injury.  Now  im- 
merse the  plates  in  a  pan  of  strong  concentrated-lye  solution,  or  commer- 
cial nitric  acid,  a  couple  of  hours — the  former  if  the  plates  are  old,  the 
latter  if  new — then  well  wash  them  and,  while  wet,  flow  the  most  concave 
surface  with  the  albumen  solution. 

128.  We  are  ready  now  to  proceed  with  the  manipulations,  and,  as  we 
make  the  trial,  let  us  ever  remember  that  care,  coolness,  cleanliness,  thought- 
fulness,  and  a  sincere  desire  to  secure  good  results  are  of  absolute  importance. 
If  one  does  not  want  to  do  a  thing  well,  one  is  apt  to  have  sorry  success. 
Photography  needs  all  the  desire  and  heart  you  can  put  into  it,  for  chem- 
icals are  obstreperous,  the  elements  are  fickle,  and  constant  changes  need 
that  you  should  always  be  on  the  alert. 

and  into  it  pour  the  whites  of  a  dozen  fresh  eggs.  Take  a  lump  of  camphor  gum  of  the  size 
of  a  hickory-nut,  and  inclose  it  in  a  bag  of  thin  muslin,  formed  by  puckering  the  muslin  to- 
gether over  the  camphor.  Tie  the  bag  around  the  neck  with  twine,  which  pass  through  a 
hole  (previously  perforated  through  the  centre  of  the  cork)  from  the  under  side  ;  draw  up 
closely,  and  fasten  in  place  by  a  knot  above.  If  the  albumen  is  to  be  used  for  the  substra- 
tum of  negatives,  I  add  one  or  two  drachms  of  strong  ammonia.  Cork  the  bottle,  and  let 
stand  about  a  week,  when  the  albumen  will  be  ready  to  be  used  from  as  required.  Dilute  as 
usual.  In  this  way  a  year's  supply  may  be  put  up  when  eggs  are  plenty  and  prime.  If 
the  albumen  is  to  be  used  in  a  preservative  or  organifier  for  dry  plates,  the  ammonia  must 
be  omitted. — W.  H.  SHERMAN. 

In  the  Photographic  Times,  September,  1875,  is  a  receipt  as  follows: 

Albumen, 1  ounce. 

Water, 8  ounces. 

Ammonia,          .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  H     " 

Iodide  of  Potassium, 30  grains. 

Bromide  of  Potassium, 15       " 

Shake  well,  then  fill  up  stock-bottle  with  water,  eight  ounces.  This  is  worth  gold.  I  for- 
get the  author's  name. — E.  T.  WHITNEY. 

128.  For  negatives,  the  artist  needs  for  good  work  glass  of  ordinary  strength  and  thick- 
ness, and  free  from  waves  and  blisters.  Perfection  of  clearness  is  only  to  be  obtained  in  the 
finest  plate-glass,  but  as  it  costs  four  or  five  times  as  much  as  good  sheet-glass,  it  is  but  sel- 
dom used  by  our  photographers.  We  know  one  who  used  it,  who  afterwards  substituted 
successfully  a  very  superior  article  of  clear  and  light-colored  glass,  called  the  "  Berkshire 
Crystal  Sheet,"  made  from  the  beautiful  white  sand  of  the  Berkshire  Hills  in  Massachusetts. 
American  glass-makers  have,  of  late  years,  greatly  improved  their  quality  in  regard  to 
color,  clearness,  good  annealing,  and  consequent  strength  and  toughness. — THOMAS  G-AFFIELD. 


LESSOR    F. 

C  H  E  M  I  C  A  L  S     A  N  D     S  0  L  U  T  I  0  N  S- 

129.  THE  COLLODION. — Collodion  is  a  mixture  of  alcohol,  ether,  py 
roxylin    or   gun-cotton,   and   sundry  iodides  and   bromides,   which   are 
sometimes  called  "  salts."     When  of  proper  consistency  it  is  of  the  thick- 
ness of  cream,  and  of  a  rich  straw  color.     Spread  upon  the  photographic 
plate,  it  serves  to  retain  the  sensitizing  agent  while  subjected  to  the  light, 
and  to  unite  with  it  in  forming  the  film  from  which  the  photographic 
image  is  developed.     It  is  made  as  follows : 

Ether,  ..........  10  ounces. 

Alcohol, 10       " 

Iodide  of  Ammonium,         ....."..  60  grains. 

Bromide  of  Potassium, 20       " 

130.  In  hot  weather  cadmium-bromide  may  be  used  in  place  of  potas- 

129.  The  following  modification  is  good : 

Ether, 6  ounces. 

Some  Brains, 

Alcohol, 6       " 

Some  more  Brains, 

Cotton,    ............     72  grains. 

Some  Iodide,  and  a  little  more  Brains, 

Some  Bromides,  and  a  large  quantity  of  Brains. 

After  the  above  is  all  dissolved  and  settled,  add  enough  brains  to  make  a  good  negative. — 
HUGH  O'NEIL. 

Having  made  a  number  of  trials  with  a  view  of  determining  what  is  the  best  strength  for 
salting  the  collodion,  and  what  the  best  for  the  bath,  I  have  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  an 
increase  in  the  sensitiveness  is  obtained  when  the  collodion  contains  thirteen  grains  of  iodides 
and  bromides,  and  the  bath  is  reduced  to  twenty-eight  grains  per  ounce. — ELBERT  ANDERSON. 

130.  Collodion  for  hot  weather.— 

Ether, 10  ounces. 

Alcohol, 12 

Bromide  of  Cadmium,    .........        1  grain  per  oz. 

Bromide  of  Ammonium,          ........       1       " 

Iodide  of  Cadmium, H     "  " 

Iodide  of  Ammonium,    .........       3       " 

Add  to  the  ether  and  alcohol,  and  shake  until  all  is  dissolved,  filter,  and  add  your  cotton 
A  reasonable  amount  of  age  helps  this  collodion. — HUGH  O'NEIL. 

(95) 


96  WILSON'S    PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

slum.  It  improves  the  keeping  qualities  of  the  collodion,  but  it  cannot 
be  used  BO  soon  after  making  it.  A  potassium  collodion  may  be  used  a 
few  hours  after  it  is  mixed.  After  weighing  out  the  ingredients,  we  put 
the  alcohol  in  a  bottle,  and  add  the  iodide ;  after  the  latter  is  dissolved 
add  the  ether.  The  potassium  must  be  dissolved  in  water,  as  little  as 
possible  being  used,  and  then  added  to  the  other.  A  precipitate  is  at 
once  formed,  the  bromide  entering  the  collodion  arid  the  metal  base  fall- 
ing to  the  bottom.  This  we  filter  out  by  means  of  filtering-paper,  and 
then  add  sixty  grains  of  gun-cotton  to  the  whole.  After  settling  a  few 
hours,  and  filtration  through  a  tuft  of  clean  absorbent  cotton,  the  col- 
lodion is  ready  for  use  in  coating  the  sensitized  plates. 

131.  If  the  novice  is  not  aware  of  the  fact,  one  day  he  will  be,  that 
photographers  are  an  exceedingly  dogmatic  species.     They  will  stickle 

131.  For  collodion,  the  best  chemicals  should  be  used.  Ether  and  alcohol  equal  parts. 
For  thirty-five  ounces,  use 

Iodide  of  Cadmium, 135  grains. 

Iodide  of  Potassium,  .........  70       " 

Bromide  of  Cadmium,  .........  70       " 

Iodide  of  Ammonium,  .........  12       " 

This  I  use  in  winter  ;  for  summer  it  is  not  limpid  enough,  cadmium  making  it  tend  to 
fogginess.  I  have  another  collodion. 

Alcohol, 12  ounces. 

Ether, 8       " 

Iodide  of  Ammonium,    .........       5  grs.  per  oz. 

Iodide  of  Cadmium,       .........       1  gr.         " 

Bromide  of  Cadmium,    .........       2  grs.       " 

Take  two  parts  of  the  first  and  one  part  of  the  last.  This  makes  a  combination  that  will 
work  in  the  hottest  of  the  season.  The  last  collodion  is  fine  for  copies.  Developer  is  twenty 
grains  ;  solution  of  iron  in  water,  acetic  acid,  little. — S.  M.  ROBINSON. 

The  following  suggestions  for  modifying  the  tendencies  of  collodion  will  be  found  use- 
ful, both  in  relation  to  commercial  samples  and  to  making  others.  For  subjects  having 
violent  contrasts,  and  for  instantaneous  collodion,  a  large  proportion  of  bromide  may  be  used 
to  secure  softness  and  harmony.  The  tendency  of  bromides  is  to  decrease  contrasts  and  se- 
cure detail.  When  the  contrasts  are  great,  and  there  is  a  tendency  to  hardness  and  over- 
intensity,  the  amount  of  bromide  may  be  increased  ;  when  want  of  intensity  is  present, 
the  proportion  of  bromide  may  be  decreased,  A  quarter  of  a  grain,  or  less,  per  ounce, 
will  secure  cleanness. 

Collodion  yielding  a  thick,  creamy  film  generally  gives  a  vigorous,  fine  image.  The  ad- 
dition of  an  extra  grain  or  two  of  pyroxylin  will  often  confer  this  quality  on  collodion 
giving  a  thin  image,  as  the  use  of  a  good  body  of  pyroxylin  tends  to  give  a  dense  image. 
When  the  film  repels  the  bath,  and  gives  a  thin  image,  a  drop  or  two  of  distilled  water  to 
the  ounce  will  often  be  an  improvement,  if  the  defect  proceeds  from  the  use  of  anhydrous 


CHEMICALS    AND    SOLUTIONS.  97 

for  a  favorite  salt,  or  an  extra  grain  thereof  in  their  collodion,  with  as 
much  tenacity  as  Shylock  did  for  his  "pound  of  flesh.''  Some  use  the 
bromides  only.  Some  others  modify  their  formula  "  to  secure  more  in- 
tensity," or  "  a  hetter  color,"  or  what  not.  Oftentimes  there  is  reason 
for  these  modifications,  and  it  is  as  well  to  understand  them,  though, 
since  light  and  atmospheric  changes  rule  the  matter  largely,  experience 
is  the  best  teacher. 

132.  A  "slow"  collodion,  and  one  giving  flat  effects  without  brilliancy 
and  roundness,  is  not  difficult  to  produce,  hence  effort  is  made  to  secure 
such  a  mixture  of  the  ingredients  as  will  enable  the  operator  to  work 
quickly  and  at  the  same  time  get  the  proper  printing  density.     Perhaps  as 
many  varieties  of  formulae  could  be  given  as  would  fill  this  book — one 
or  two  will  suffice,  though  a  great  many  know  that  they  are  by  no  means 
the  best.     They  have  been  found  sufficient,  however,  to  avoid  the  ne- 
cessity of  procuring  a  "lightning"  rod. 

133.  Among  others,  the  veteran  photographer,  Mr.  J.  'W.  Black,  of 
Boston,  advocates  a  collodion  entirely  without  bromides.     This  neces- 
sitates the  working  of  an  extremely  acid  bath,  and,  as  that  is  difficult, 

solvents.  Over-iodized  collodion  generally  produces  streaks  at  one  end  of  the  plate,  and,  if 
the  iodide  be  present  in  great  excess,  it  leaves  the  film  in  flakes  whilst  in  the  nitrate  bath. — 
G.  WHARTON  SIMPSON. 

122.   I.  will  give  one  of  the  quickest  and  finest  collodions  in  existence  : 

Alcohol  and  Ether, equal  parts. 

Iodide  of  Potassium, 5  grains. 

Bromide  of  Potassium,     .         . 2J      " 

Pyroxylin  (to  ounce  of  plain  collodion), 5  to  6  grains. 

Now  it  is  the  way  this  is  made  that  makes  the  difference.  Weigh  out  the  excitant  and  the 
cotton,  and  put  them  into  the  ether  and  alcohol,  and  shake  the  bottle  until  the  whole  bath  is 
dissolved  ;  let  it  stand  until  it  settles  ;  then  filter,  and  you  have  it. — JAMES  O.  MERRILL. 

133.  With  regard  to  the  preference  of  the  bromo-iodized  collodion  over  the  purely  iodized 
collodion,  it  is  found  practically  in  the  greater  sensibility  of  the  former  for  the  reflected  light 
of  the  shadows.  Having  stated  the  difference  of  quality  of  the  direct  and  reflected  light,  the 
following  will  be  easily  understood.  A  plate  of  purely  iodized  collodion  is  sensitive  only  for 
violet  and  violet-blue  rays,  purely  bromized  collodion  is  sensitive  for  violet,  violet-blue,  and 
blue  rays,  bromo-iodized  collodion  is  sensitive  for  violet,  violet-blue,  blue,  and  even  green  rays. 
The  decomposition  of  the  white  light  into  the  pure  colors  which  nature  shows  in  the  rainbow- 
can  be  effected  by  a  prism  of  glass.  By  photographing  the  rainbow-like  colored  spectrum, 
which  is  obtained  by  the  prism,  these  remarkable  facts  have  been  stated. 

It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  the  bromo-iodized  collodion  is  the  most  susceptible  to  impres- 
sion by  the  light  of  the  shadowy  parts,  in  which  the  violet  and  violet-blue  rays  are  much 
7 


98  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

and  since  the  most  lovely  effects  can  be  and  are  secured  with  the  bromo- 
iodized  collodion,  there  is  no  good  reason  for  going  into  trouble  for  the 
sake  of  avoiding  its  use.  Yet,  as  long  as  the  collodion  and  the  nitrate 
bath  are  used,  doctors  will  greatly  disagree  on  this  point. 

134.  "  Double-iodized  "  collodion  is  preferred  by  some  manipulators. 
It  was  introduced  commercially  some  years  ago  by  Mr.  Alfred  L.  Hance. 
of  Philadelphia,  and  his  brand  is  yet  very  popular  in  some  sections 
Its  preparation  is  about  as  follows : 

Iodide  of  Potassium, 166  grains. 

Iodide  of  Cadmium, .         .  183       " 

Dissolve  in  as  little  water  as  possible,  and  evaporate  by  heat  to  dryness. 
stirring  constantly.  To  each  ounce  of  plain  collodion  add 

Double  Salts,        .........       6  grains. 

Bromide  of  Cadmium, 1\     " 

In  making  up  the  plain  collodion  the  quantity  of  alcohol  per  gallon 
should  be  about  eight  ounces  short,  and  when  the  iodizing  solution  is 

weakened,  as  it  is  sensitive  also  for  blue  and  greeu  rays,  while  with  purely  iodized  collodion 
this  sensibility  is  wanting. — SHULTZ  SELLACK. 

INTENSE  COLLODION. — As  a  means  of  obtaining  density  in  negatives,  it  has  been  recom- 
mended to  introduce  into  the  collodion  organic  matter  in  the  shape  of  sugar.  Dissolve  on*-, 
grain  of  white  sugar  in  a  few  drops  of  water,  add  this  solution  to  the  alcohol  in  making  the 
collodion  ;  one  grain  of  sugar  being  sufficient  for  four  ounces  of  collodion,  and  causing  it  to 
yield  negatives  of  the  utmost  intensity.  The  introduction  of  too  much  sugar  renders  the 
film  rotten,  and  in  some  cases  it  will  be  found  desirable  to  reduce  the  amount  here  given. — 
J.  L.  GIHON. 

134.  It  was  in  the  year  1857,  I  believe,  that  I  first  made  use  of  the  iodides  of  potassium 
and  cadmium  in  combination.  I  have,  in  connection  with  this  double  iodide,  used  the 
double  bromides  of  cadmium  and  ammonium  in  the  manner  to  be  described,  to  prepare  the 
double  iodide  and  bromide,  which  is  simple  and  easy  to  do,  and  leaves  you  with  but  two 
salts  to  weigh  out  when  compounding  your  collodion.  The  potassium-cadmium  iodide  is 
prepared  thus : 

Potassium-Iodide, 332  parts. 

Cadmium-Iodide, 366       " 

Dissolve  together  in  as  small  a  quantity  of  distilled  water  as  will  dissolve  them  ;  evaporate 
by  a  gentle  heat  to  dryness  ;  stir  at  the  last  with  a  glass  rod  to  granulate  the  salts.     "When 
quite  dry,  bottle  for  use.     Ammonium-cadmium  bromide  in  the  following  proportions : 
Ammonium-Bromide,      .........     196  parts. 

Cadmium-Bromide,          .  -       .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .     272       " 

Dissolve  and  prepare  same  as  the  iodide.  I  now  prepare  two  collodions,  one  iodized,  the 
other  bromized,  enabling  one  to  mix  the  collodions  to  suit  any  subject  desired. 

Iodized  collodion,  made  with  equal  parts  ether  and  alcohol,  cotton  to  suit,  and  with  six 
grains  of  iodide  to  the  ounce. 


CHEMICALS    AND    SOLUTIONS.  99 

added  as  below,  the  quantity  will  be  correct.     For  one  pound  of  col- 
lodion take 

Double  Iodide, 96  grains. 

Bromide  of  Cadmium,         .         .         .         .         .         .         .     40     " 

Alcohol, 1   ounce. 

Careful  watching  is  needed  in  evaporating  the  salts  to  complete  crys- 
tallization. 

135.  Both  the  quality  and  the  quantity  of  cotton  used  in  the  mixture 
of  collodion  are  to  be  regarded.  Our  American  manufactures  run  very 
uniform  in  quality  as  a  usual  thing,  and  once  you  find  out  a  sample  that 

Bromized  collodion,  made  with  five  parts  ether  to  three  parts  alcohol,  cotton  to  suit,  and 
ten  grains  bromide  to  the  ounce. 

Mixed  in  the  following  proportion,  this  collodion  will  be  found  to  meet  the  wants  of  both 
landscape  and  portrait  photography. 

Two  parts  iodized  to  one  part  bromized;  suitable  for  dry  plates,  and  used  wet,  for  interiors 
and  dimly  lighted  subjects. 

Three  parts  iodized  to  one  part  bromized  ;  suited  for  children  and  quick  exposures. 

Four  parts  iodized  to  one  part  bromized ;  a  generally  useful  collodion. 

Five  parts  iodized  to  one  part  bromized  ;  suited  for  copying  and  subjects  presenting  little 
contrast 

The  nitrate  bath  should  be  sufficiently  acid  with  nitric  acid  to  immediately  change  blue 
litmus-paper,  for  the  collodion  has  the  property  of  neutralizing  the  bath.  It  is  better  not  to 
use  this  collodion  till  it  is  one  to  three  months  old.  Yet  it  can  be  brought  into  working  con- 
dition in  as  many  days  by  the  addition  of  tincture  of  iodine ;  but  I  would  recommend  those 
who  desire  to  try  it,  to  bottle  it  up  and  lay  it  away  in  a  cool  place  for  a  few  months,  for,  like 
good  wine,  it  improves  with  age. — JOHN  CARBUTT. 

There  is  no  difficulty  in  preparing  the  double  salts.  To  produce  double  ammoniun-cad- 
mium  iodide,  dissolve  one  hundred  and  forty-five  parts  iodide  ammonium  and  one  hundred 
and  eighty-three  parts  iodide  cadmium  in  water,  and  evaporate  till  it  crystallizes.  It 
crystallizes  quite  easily  in  slightly  distorted  cubes,  and  can  be  freed  from  the  yellow  mother 
lye  by  pressing.  If  you  wish  very  clean  salt,  you  will  have  to  crystallize  it  again. 

The  single  ammonium-cadmium  bromide  is  prepared  by  dissolving  three  hundred  and 
forty-four  parts  of  crystallized  bromide-cadmium  and  ninety-eight  parts  bromide  ammonium 
in  water,  evaporating  till  crystallization ;  the  latter  may  also  be  repeated. — DR.  H.  W, 
VOGEL. 

135.  When  we  increase  the  quantity  of  cotton  in  a  collodion,  the  sensitiveness  of  the 
preparation  increases  also.  Dr.  Zettnow  recommends  to  use  as  much  cotton  as  possible,  but 
practically  we  soon  reach  a  limit,  as  thick  collodion  does  not  flow  readily ;  to  this  must  be 
added,  that  if  the  proportion  of  collodion  is  increased  beyond  two  and  a  quarter  per  cent.,  a 
decrease  of  sensitiveness  takes  place  instead  of  an  increase.  The  high-lights,  of  course, 
become  more  intense  with  a  thick  collodion,  but  the  shadows  are  paler  and  the  picture 
looks  hard.  The  boundary-line  to  which  we  may  go  in  increasing  the  thickness  of  collodion 
depends  on  the  nature  of  the  pyroxylin  employed ;  of  a  short-fibred  cotton  a  larger  quantity 
may  be  taken  than  of  a  long- fibred  variety.  Dr.  Zettnow  maintains  that  the  beauty  of  a 


100  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

pleases  your  fancy,  you  will  have  but  little  trouble  to  secure  it  again. 
The  action  of  the  acids  used  in  the  manufacture  of  gun-cotton,  with 
some  samples  of  the  raw  cotton,  produce  such  foreign  bodies  as  gum, 
glucose,  etc.,  but  as  a  rule,  they  cause  no  injury.  As  to  the  quantity  of 
gun-cotton  to  be  used  in  collodion,  there  can  be  no  real  rule,  but  the  for- 
jnulee  given  are  enough  to  guide  one. 

136.  THE  SENSITIZER. — To  render  the  collodion  film  sensitive  to  the 
light,  it  must  be  immersed  in  a  solution  formed  of  nitrate  of  silver  crys- 
tals, and  water.  The  water  must  be  pure,  and  the  silver  free  from  con- 
tamination, used  in  the  following  proportions  : 

Water, 36  ounces. 

Nitrate  of  Silver, .       3        " 

After  the  crystals  are  dissolved,  add  to  the  solution  two  grains  of  iodide 
of  potassium  to  each  ounce  of  silver  used,  first  dissolving  it  in  a  few 
drops  of  wrater,  or,  what  is  better,  make  a  solution  of  iodide  of  silver, 
and  add  it.  The  iodide  mixes  with  the  solution  and  the  potassium  is 
precipitated.  Filtration  follows,  when  a  few  drops  of  chemically  pure 
nitric  acid  are  added,  drop  by  drop  until  blue  litmus-paper  is  slowly 
turned  red  by  it.  This  solution  is  usually  called  the  "  bath,"  or  sensitiz- 
ing solution.  Placed  in  the  glass  bath-holder,  it  is  ready  for  use. 

picture  increases  with  the  amount  of  pyroxylin  contained  in  the  collodion ;  this,  however, 
is  a  matter  of  taste:  a  thick  collodion  gives  stronger  contrasts,  i.  e.,  the  shadows  are  thinner 
and  the  lights  more  intense,  but  a  limpid  collodion  will  yield  a  softer  picture,  provided  the 
time  of  exposure  has  been  sufficiently  long.  When  the  contrasts  of  light  and  shade  are 
very  strong,  as  in  a  sunlit  landscape,  I  prefer  taking  a  thin  collodion,  and  by  lengthening  the 
time  of  exposure  I  obtain  a  softer  picture. — DR.  H.  W.  YOGEL. 

136.  Most  collodions  require  a  faint  acidity  of  the  bath,  but  the  utmost  care  is  requisite  to 
avoid  adding  too  much.  Putting  a  glass  rod  into  a  nitric-acid  bottle,  and  stirring  the  bath 
with  it,  as  some  do,  is  a  most  clumsy  way,  and  introduces  a  great  deal  too  much — several  drops 
at  once.  The  best  way  is  as  follows :  put  four  ounces  of  distilled  water  into  a  stoppered  vial, 
and  drop  into  it  sixty-four  drops  of  pure  nitric  acid.  Each  half  drachm  will  then  contain 
exactly  one  drop  of  the  acid.  When  you  mix  your  bath  with  the  crystallized  nitrate,  you  may 
find  your  collodion  work  well  with  it  at  once.  But  where  fused  nitrate  is  used,  acidification 
is  apt  to  be  required.  To  a  twenty-five  ounce  bath,  add  a  half  drachm  of  the  dilute  acid,  that 
is,  one  drop  of  nitric  acid,  and  try  a  plate.  If  it  fogs,  add  another  drop  and  try  again.  In 
the  last  trial  which  I  made,  a  twenty-ounce  bath  of  fused  nitrate  required  just  two  and  a  half 
drops  of  nitric  acid  to  make  it  work  right. — M.  CAKEY  LEA. 

To  MAKE  IODIDE  or  SILVER. — Take  twenty  grains  iodide  of  potassium,  and  dissolve  in 
one  ounce  of  water  ;  twenty-five  grains  of  nitrate  of  silver,  and  dissolve  in  one  ounce  of  water. 
A  precipitate  is  formed,  which  is  iodide  of  silver;  wash  the  precipitate  six  or  eight  times  and 
it  is  ready  for  use. — HUGH  O'NEIL. 


CHEMICALS    AND    SOLUTIONS.  101 

137.  No  witch  of  the  Yesuvian  Caves  ever  exercised  more  diligent 
car.e  in  the  preparation  of  her  potent  philtres  than  should  the  photogra- 
pher in  the  preparation  of  his  bath  solution.  And  moreover  he  should 
be  generous  about  it.  It  is  not  enough  to  merely  have  solution  sufficient 
to  cover  the  plate.  It  should  not  be  expected  to  bring  you  good  results 
without  a  plentiful  supply  of  that  which  renders  it  capable.  Therefore, 
a  good  large  solution  is  recommended,  and  is  indeed  necessary,  if  the 
best  results  and  least  trouble  are  an  object.  And  more  than  this :  Do 
not  trust  to  a  single  solution,  for,  like  your  health,  it  is  liable  to  break 
down  at  any  and  the  most  unexpected  moment.  Therefore,  always  have  a 
second  solution  in  good  condition  ready  for  any  emergency.  This  will  re- 
lieve you  from  anxiety,  and  it  will  save  you  from  many  a  mortifying  failure. 
Indeed,  there  is  a  great  deal  of  "  human  nature  "  in  a  bath  solution. 

137.  To  make  a  good  bath  buy  a  pound  of  silver.  Do  not  let  this  startle  you,  for  in  a 
year's  time  you  no  doubt  buy  much  more;  buy  a  pound  of  silver,  I  say,  at  once;  that  is 
your  first  step.  Oh,  that  I  could  impress  it  upon  your  mind  not  to  be  niggardly  in  the 
matter  of  silver !  Dissolve  the  aforesaid  pound  of  silver  in  one  hundred  and  sixty  ounces 
of  the  purest  water  you  can  find.  Sun  the  same  well,  and  filter  enough  into  your  bath-dish 
for  use;  into  this  drop  enough  nitric  acid,  C.  P.,  to  redden  litmus-paper  a  trifle.  Coat  a 
glass  plate  well  with  collodion,  and  leave  in  your  bath  (which  latter  is  perhaps  a  sixteen- 
ounce  one)  over  night;  then  go  ahead  with  your  sitters  until  you  begin  to  perceive  that  the 
bath  fails  to  give  the  good  results  it  did  in  the  beginning,  from  the  introduction  of  ether 
and  alcohol  and  iodides;  then  filter  it  back  into  the  large  bottle  of  solution,  which  I  take 
for  granted  has  been  sunning,  and  that  you  are  clean  about  your  fingers  in  the  dark-room 
generally.  Out  of  your  stock  solution  you  may  now  fill  up  your  bath  dish  again,  acidifying 
and  iodizing  should  it  need  it. 

Your  first  bath  should  dip  at  least  fifty  plates  before  needing  renewing,  and  your  next  the 
same.  When  in  turn  this  bath  fails,  proceed  as  you  did  with  the  first  one,  viz.  :  filter  it  back 
into  the  stock  solution,  and  fill  up  your  bath-dish  again  out  of  the  same,  this  time  and  ever 
afterwards  omitting  the  acidifying  and  iodizing.  Proceed  in  this  manner,  using  the  solution 
over  and  over  again,  until  from  continued  use  the  whole  bath  becomes  charged  with  alcohol 
and  iodides. 

At  this  stage  you  will  find  that  you  have  on  hand  a  little  over  one  hundred  ounces  of 
solution,  testing  about  forty  grains  per  ounce.  I  would  then  advise  the  following  treatment: 
Heat  the  solution  until  at  least  one-half  the  water  is  evaporated,  then  while  still  hot  drop 
carefully,  a  little  at  a  time,  ammonia  -into  it  until  red  litmus-paper  is  turned  blue  by  the 
same;  immediately  set  in  the  sun,  when  all  the  impure  matter  will  be  precipitated,  and  may 
on  the  solutions  cooling  be  filtered  out.  You  have  then  a  solution  on  hand  about  eighty 
grains  strong,  slightly  alkaline.  To  this  may  be  added  pure  water  to  bring  it  up  to  its 
former  strength.  You  may  now  add  to  the  same  four  ounces  of  silver  and  forty  ounces  of 
pure  water,  and  you  have  a  bath  which,  after  acidifying,  will  work  for  the  next  six  months 
better  than  an  entirely  new  one. — C.  A.  ZIMMERMAN. 


102  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

138.  The  desire  for  greater  rapidity  has  been  one  largely  in  the  minds 
of  photographers  always.  This  is  all  right  enough,  so  long  as  good  quali- 
ties and  necessary  ones  in  the  negative  are  not  sacrificed.  Sometimes 
they  are.  During  the  past  two  or  three  years,  many  "  quick  "  processes 
have  been  published,  but  in  result  they  are  never  superior,  and  often  in- 
ferior, to  what  is  obtained  by  the  usual  photographer  by  ordinary  means. 
It  is  an  acceptable  thing  to  the  sitter  to  be  released  a  few  seconds  sooner 
from  the  grip  of  the  head-tongs,  but  it  is  no  honor  to  the  artist  if  his 
results  are  spoiled. 

138.  To  ninety-six  ounces  of  pure  water  add  eight  ounces  of  nitrate  of  silver,  forty  grains 
of  iodide  of  potassium,  and  two  hundred  and  eighty-eight  grains  of  nitrate  of  baryta.  Shake 
until  the  whole  is  dissolved.  Now  filter  thoroughly  through  two  thicknesses  of  filter-paper ; 
filter  several  times  until  the  milkiness  has  all  disappeared,  then  make  sufficiently  acid  with 
C.  P.  nitric  acid.  Any  good  developer  will  do,  but  I  make  mine  in  this  way : 

Pure  Crystals  of  Iron,    .........     10  ounces. 

Granulated  White  Sugar, 6       " 

Water, 32       " 

Acetic  Acid, 3        " 

Of  this  stock  solution  take  three  ounces,  and  add  twelve  ounces  of  water  and  one  ounce  of 
acetic  acid. 

I  have  been  able  to  make  pictures  of  infants  in  one  second,  that  were  full-timed  negatives, 
nnd  averaged  sittings  in  from  three  to  six  seconds. — E.  P.  LIBBY. 
Kapid  negative  bath : 

Nitrate  of  Silver, 35  grains. 

Boric  Acid,     ...........       4       " 

Water, 1  ounce. 

Iodide  of  Potassium,  quantum  tufficit. 
A  few  drops  of  nitric  acid,  sufficient  to  render  the  bath  slightly  acid.     Developer: 

Sulphate  of  Iron, 29  grains. 

Acetic  Acid, 20  drops. 

Acetate  of  Lead  (Sugar  of  Lead), 3  grains. 

Water, 1  ounce. 

Put  a  filter  in  a  clean  funnel,  and  fill  it  a  quarter  full  with  boric  acid,  filter  the  developer 
always  through  it;  the  solution  will  take  up  the  necessary  quantity  of  boric  acid;  the  filter 
and  boric  acid  will  last  a  very  long  time. — ALEXANDER  HENDERSON. 
For  extra  rapid  work  try  the  following: 

Nitrate  of  Silver, 8  ounces. 

Iodide  of  Sodium, 40  grains. 

Nitrate  of  Baryta, 288       " 

Distilled  Water, 96  ounces. 

CONRAD  PETERSON. 

I  do  not  believe  in  this  "lightning"  business.  I  can  produce  as  "quick"  results  as  any 
of  you  with  my  ordinary  solutions. — OLD  ARGENTUM. 


CHEMICALS    AND    SOLUTIONS.  103 

139.  THE  DEVELOPER. — The  collodion  may  flow  never  so  smoothly,  and 
the  nitrate  solution  prove  ever  so  sensitive,  yet  they  are  powerless  to  pro- 
duce results,  unless  a  third  solution  known  as  the  developer  be  employed. 
It  startles  the  latent  image  from  its  slumbers  within  the  film,  as  the 
sunshine  startles  the  morning  and  develops  it  into  "  the  perfect  day." 
The  development  of  a  photographic  plate  is  probably  the  most  beautiful 
operation  in  chemistry  or  physics.  Once  the  developer  strikes  the  ex- 
posed  nlm,  armies  of  molecules  are  started  into  action,  and  move  in  solid 
phalanxes  as  well  as  in  tiny  squads,  with  one  intent,  to  build  up  the 
grand  result.  To  make  the  developer,  have  a  stock-bottle  containing 

Water,         ..........     64  ounces. 

Protosulphate  of  Iron,         .......       4       " 

From  this  separate  fourteen  ounces,  and  add  thereto  two  ounces  of 
d-cetic  acid.  Shake  well. 

I  wish  here  to  confine  myself  to  showing  how  a  rapid  negative  bath  may  be  made  that 
will  keep  in  working  order  for  an  indefinite  period,  with  only  the  usual  strengthening  and 
occasional  boiling  to  get  rid  of  the  ether  and  alcohol.  Formula  for  bath : 

Nitrate  of  Silver,    ..........       2^  ounces. 

Common  Water, 30  " 

Nitrate  of  Barytes, 90  grains. 

Iodide  of  Potassium, 20       " 

Nitric  Acid, Enough  to  show  slight  acidity. 

filter,  and  the  bath  is  ready  for  use. 

The  filtering-paper  containing  the  undissolved  iodide  of  silver  must  not  be  thrown  away, 
but  used  every  time  the  bath  is  filtered.  To  obtain  the  full  effects  of  this  bath,  it  is  necessary 
to  have  an  excess  of  iodide  of  silver.  When  the  bath  requires  strengthening,  add  three 
grains  of  barytes  to  each  ounce  of  solution  in  addition  to  the  nitrate  of  silver,  otherwise  it 
would  be  difficult  to  estimate  the  strength  of  silver  in  the  bath.  By  the  argentometer  this 
bath  will  register  about  thirty-five  degrees.  Any  collodion  will  do ;  it  must  not  be  too  horny. 
— W.  E.  DEBENHAM. 

139.  DEVELOPMENT. — Photographers  who  aim  at  good  work,  and  at  ease  in  getting  through 
it,  are  recommended  to  use  a  saturated  solution  of  iron  for  their  developer.  It  saves  a  great 
deal  of  time  in  making  up  solutions,  and  a  great  deal  of  trouble  in  weighing,  shaking,  etc., 
and  the  strength  of  the  developer  can  be  altered  at  pleasure  to  suit  the  particular  subject  in 
hand.  To  use  it,  take 

Saturated  Solution  of  Iron,    ........       1^  ounce. 

Glacial  Acetic  Acid,        .........       6  drachms. 

Water, 18  ounces. 

This  gives  a  fifteen-grain  developer.     To  make  a  twenty-grain  developer,  take 

Saturated  Solution  of  Iron,    ........       2  ounces. 

Glacial  Acetic  Acid,        .........       6  drachms. 

Water, 18  ounces. 

W.  T.  WILKINSON 


104  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

140.  It  will  be  seen  that  there  is  diversity  of  opinion  here  also.  The 
real  fact  is  development,  like  exposure,  is  a  matter  of  inspiration  or  of 
feeling.  It  is  the  department  of  manipulation  above  all  others  which  re- 
quires the  most  careful  watching,  the  most  attentive  thinking,  and  the 
clearest-headed  handling.  It  is  the  file  by  means  of  which  all  the  rough- 
ness of  previous  manipulations  may  be  smoothed  down  and  modified 
tolerably,  if  the  head  and  hand  help  it.  The  simile  is  a  mechanical 
one,  but  proper  development  is  an  art,  or  mayhap,  a  science. 

I  like  the  following  : 

Protosulphate  of  Iron, 2  drachms. 

Common  Alum, 4         " 

Acetic  Acid, 2         " 

Gum  Camphor,  broken  up  in  small  pieces  in  a  bottle  of  water,     .  6  ounces. 

If  the  bath  be  stronger  or  weaker  than  thirty  grains,  the  alum  must  be  increased  or  de- 
creased in  the  same  ratio. — A.  L.  HENDERSON. 

We  want  to  produce  a  negative  brilliant  in  contrast,  transparent,  and  solid.  First,  let  us 
make  a  developer. 

Iron, 2  parts. 

Epsom  Salts,  ...........       1  part. 

Acetic  Acid,    ...........       1      " 

Hydrometrical  test — Iron,  fifteen  grains. 

This  I  consider  the  most  perfect  combination  for  a  developer,  as  the  astringent  Epsom 
salts  reduce  softly.  Then  there  must  be  the  proper  amount  of  acid  in  the  iron  to  insure  a 
slow  and  continued  deposit.  Of  course,  a  continued  deposit  depends  mainly  upon  the  con- 
dition of  the  bath,  which  must  not  be  too  acid. — S.  P.  WELLS. 

140.  I  offer  a  method  of  modifying  the  plain  iron  developer  which  shall  produce  any 
desired  effect  in  ordinary  gallery  work,  both  positive  and  negative,  and  which  will  be  found, 
for  cheapness  and  convenience  the  best  thing  out. 

The  basis  of  stock  solution  of  this  developer  is  that  used  by  a  majority  of  photographers,  viz.: 

Water,     ..........     64  ounces,  fluid. 

Protosulphate  of  Iron,    .......       4         "      by  weight. 

Acetic  Acid,  No.  8, 4  fluid. 

If  the  silver  solution  has  been  in  use  for  a  length  of  time,  it  will  be  necessary  to  add 
from  one  to  four  ounces  of  alcohol  to  the  above,  which  is  to  counteract  the  effect  of  the 
alcohol  and  ether,  which  may  have  accumulated  in  the  silver  solution  from  the  collodionized 
plates. 

The  process  of  development  by  this  solution  should  be  carried  on  over  a  large  glass  funnel, 
which  should  receive  all  the  solution  which  runs  off  the  plate  and  the  draining  of  the  plate 
after  development.  This  surplus  or  wash  should  pass  through  a  loose  filter  into  a  receptacle 
below,  and  saved  to  be  used  again  in  the  proportions  of  two-thirds  of  old  to  one-third  new 
for  positives,  and  for  negatives  in  proportions  to  suit  the  purpose,  but  usually  a  greater 
proportion  of  the  new  to  the  old. 


CHEMICALS    AND    SOLUTIONS.  105 

141.  For  delicate  effects,  preference  is  often  given  to  the  ammonio-sul- 
phate of  iron  developer.  If  your  subject  is  dressed  in  white  draperies, 
or  is  himself  fair-skinned  and  fair-haired,  this  form  will  be  found  of  ser- 
vice to  you.  Make  it  as  follows  : 

Double  Sulphate  of  Iron  and  Ammonia,   ...       2^  ounces. 

Acetic  Acid,  No.  8, 5         " 

Water, 40        "   • 

Apply  with  the  same  care  as  the  other. 

Now  by  the  above  method  any  desired  effect  can  be  secured  both  in  negatives  and  in  posi- 
tives, and  it  only  requires  a  short  experience  by  an  observing  operator  to  determine  the  proper 
proportions.  It  will  also  be  observed  that  this  formula,  or  rather  method  of  development, 
has  the  great  advantage  of  economy,  reducing  the  expense  of  material  for  developing 
solution  one-half  ordinarily,  in  very  few  instances  more  or  less,  as  the  work  may  be  in 
positives  or  negatives. 

In  the  development  of  a  negative,  if  it  is  desired  to  obtain  a  very  soft  effect  with  fine 
definition,  increase  the  quantity  of  new  solution  up  to  the  exclusion  of  the  old,  as  the  case 
may  be;  to  secure  intensity,  the  proportion  of  old  may  be  increased.  It  will  at  once  be  seen 
what  a  range  of  modifications  is  here  obtained,  and  what  great  advantages  may  accrue  from 
so  simple  a  device. — E.  M.  ESTABROOKE. 

141.  My  preference  has  always  been  for  the  ammonio-sulphate  of  iron  developer.  Make 
a  saturated  solution  of  ammonio-sulphate  of  iron  in  water,  filter,  and  to  every  ounce  of  so- 
lution add  one  drachm  of  glacial  acetic  acid.  This  is  a  stock-bottle,  and  by  making  six  or 
eight  ounces,  it  will  be  sufficient  for  a  large  number  of  plates,  and  has  the  advantage  of 
keeping  any  length  of  time  in  good  condition.  Before  developing  a  plate,  it  is  necessary  to 
reduce  the  strength  of  the  saturated  solution.  Take  a  small  wide-mouthed  bottle,  and  to  every 
five  drachms  of  water  add  two  drachms  of  the  stock  solution.  The  developer  is  now  ready 
for  use.  Time  may  be  saved  by  marking  with  a  file  or  diamond  upon  the  bottle  the  exact 
amount  of  water  desired,  and  another  mark  for  the  iron  solution.  The  proportion  of  five 
to  two  is  the  formula  that  I  generally  prefer,  but  it  can  readily  be  altered  to  suit  the  subject 
by  increasing  or  decreasing  the  amount  of  iron.  When  the  bath  is  new  no  difficulty  will 
be  experienced  in  flowing  the  developer  evenly  over  the  plate,  but  by  constant  use,  alcohol 
and  ether  being  absorbed  into  it,  the  developer  may  require  the  addition  of  a  little  alcohol 
to  make  the  solution  run  perfectly  even.  After  standing  for  some  hours  a  crystallization 
will  take  place  in  the  bottom  of  the  bottl^ ,  but  that  is  to  be  expected,  and  will  do  no  harm  to  the 
solution.  I  have  had  no  experience  with  this  developer  for  portraits. 

Negatives  developed  by  this  double  salt  are  peculiarly  suited  for  making  glass  positives  for 
the  magic  lantern,  also  for  solar  enlargement.  Indeed,  for  every  purpose  that  I  have  used 
it  (except  instantaneous  photography),  perfect  satisfaction  has  been  given.  The  concentrated 
character  of  this  developer  makes  it  well  suited  for  out-door  work,  where  every  pound  of 
additional  weight  is  to  be  avoided  by  the  operator.  It  is,  of  course,  necessary  to  use  as  pure 
water  as  can  be  readily  found  for  diluting  the  strength  of  the  developer.  Water  containing 
chlorides  in  considerable  proportions  must  be  avoided.  The  time  of  exposure  requires  to  be 
rather  longer  when  this  developer  is  used. — J.  C.  BROWNE. 


106  WILSON'S   PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

142.  THE  FIXING  SOLUTION. — Still,  the  beautiful,  delicate  image  which 
the  developer  brings  forth  would  be  fugitive,  and  disappear  when  ex- 
posed to  the  light,  were  not'  a  fourth  solution  appealed  to  to  fix  it.     This 
may  be  a  saturated  solution  of  hyposulphite  of  soda  in  water,  or  of  cyan- 
ide of  potassium,  say  one  ounce  to  six  ounces  of  water.     The  last  is  a 
deadly  poison,  and  should  never  be  used.     The  "  hypo."  solution  should 
be  changed  frequently  to  avoid  the  creation  of  pin-holes  upon  the  plates. 
The  old,  used  solution  contains  considerable  silver,  and  should  be  saved 
and  sent  to  the  refiner  for  reduction. 

143.  THE  INTENSIFIES,. — We  now  have  the  four  prime  solutions  or  mix- 
tures with  which  to  make  negatives ;  but  as  variations  in  light,  tempera- 
ture, atmosphere,  and  subject  cause  the  chemicals  to  vary  in  their  action, 
we  must  provide  us  with  a  further  mixture  to  meet  emergencies.     This 
we  call  the  intensifier.     If,  from  over-exposure  or  any  other  cause,  there 
is  insufficient  contrast  between  the  lights  and  shades,  the  printing  quality 

142.  This  matter  of  the  principle  on  which  the  fixing  capacity  of  the  hyposulphite  de- 
pends is  one  that  is  scarcely  as  generally  understood  as  it  should  be.     Be  this  as  it  may,  its 
importance  would  justify  any  amount  of  repetition.     Photographers  are  perhaps  too  often 
disposed  to  think  that,  from  a  given  quantity  of  hypo.,  they  have  a  right  to  exact  a  given 
amount  of  work,  no  matter  when  they  happen  to  be  ready  to  require  its  performance,  for- 
getting that  a  fixing  bath  begins  to  change  from  the  first  moment  of  its  use,  and  continues  to  do 
so  until  gradually  its  silver  is  finally  precipitated  as  black  sulphide  of  silver. — M.  CAREY 
LEA. 

143.  When  a  negative  properly  exposed  is   developed,  and  all  the  details  are  properly 
rendered,  we  have  a  picture  in  which  there  is  a  complete  scale  of  light  and  shade.     That  it 
is  too  feeble  to  print  does  not  affect  this  principle.     But,  as  soon  as  we  begin  to  intensify 
this,  we  increase  the  amount  of  the  lights,  leaving  the  darks  of  the  picture  unaltered.     We 
thus  entirely  alter  the  scale  of  light  and  shade,  and  often  make  what  would  have  been  a  quiet, 
harmonious  negative,  a  harsh  and  discordant  one.     One  of  our  great  defects  is  that  we  treat 
all  faces  and  subjects  alike.     If  the  face  is  finely  moulded  and  will  bear  being  brought  into 
high  relief,  we  can  well  bring  it  up  into  strong  light;  but  it  would  often  be  better  to  keep  it 
in  low  half- tint.     This  is  now  being  done  much  more  frequently  than  heretofore,  and  we  can 
only  hope  that  the  practice  may  be  extended  to  our  ordinary  work. — J.  C.  LEAKE. 

I  do  not,  as  a  general  thing,  believe  in  intensification,  but  we  all  get  caught  up  sometimes, 
and  are  compelled  to  resort  to  it.  Take  a  saturated  solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury,  add 
to  it  a  saturated  solution  of  iodide  of  potassium  until  all  the  iodide  of  mercury  is  taken  up, 
and  the  solution  is  clear  again  ;  use  two  or  three  drops  of  this  in  one  ounce  of  water  for  in- 
tensifying. Should  a  negative  become  too  intense,  it  may  be  reduced  again  by  a  weak  solu- 
tion of  cyanide.  No  abrupt  chalky  lights  result  from  the  use  of  this  intensifier,  and  it  will 
bring  out  wondrous  detail  in  the  shadows  hardly  suspected  before.  Wash  well,  and  do  not 
make  the  negative  any  more  intense  than  you  desire  to  have  it  after  varnishing,  as  the  var- 
nish will  reduce  it  but  very  little. — R.  BKNECKK. 


CHEMICALS    AND    SOLUTIONS.  107 

of  a  negative  may  be  improved  by  intensification.  After  the  first,  or 
iron  development,  wash  the  negative  thoroughly  all  over,  and  then  flow 
it  once  or  twice  with  the  following  solution : 

Pyrogallic  Acid,         .......     20  grains. 

Citric  Acid, 20     " 

Water,        .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .     10  to  15  ounces. 

Allow  it  to  remain  a  moment  or  two  upon  the  plate,  and  then  drain  it 
back  into  the  vessel  whence  it  came.  From  your  bath-holder  dip  a  small 
quantity  of  solution  and  double  its  bulk  with  water.  Of  this  add  a  few 
drops  to  the  once  used  intensifier,  and  pour  the  whole  over  the  plate 
again  and  again,  until  the  desired  intensity  is  obtained.  It  should  be 
the  aim  of  every  photographer  to  obtain  sufficient  strength  in  his  nega- 
tives without  intensification,  the  latter  being  a  sort  of  a  manipulatory  in- 
temperance, and  an  evil  habit. 

144.  "The  best  method  of  intensification  is  not  to  intensify  at  all,"  is  a 
maxim  held  to  be  true  by  many.     The  great  trouble  about  it  all  is  that 

144.  First  solution. — 

Sulphate  of  Copper, 400  grains. 

Bromide  of  Ammonium,         ........     10       " 

Water, .20  ounces. 

Second  solution. — 

Schlippe's  Salts, 5  to  10  grains. 

Water, 1  ounce. 

JOHN  CARBUTT. 

Take  a  few  grains  of  iodide  of  potassium,  and  dissolve  in  a  few  ounces -of  water;  then  add 
a  solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury,  which  will  at  once  form  a  red  precipitate ;  add  mercury 
(a  few  drops  at  a  time)  until  the  precipitate  is  all  taken  up,  or  until  the  solution  becomes 
clear  after  a  good  shake. — HUGH  O'NEIL. 

Sulphuret  of  potassium  may  be  also  used  in  solution  as  an  intensifier. 

A  friend  of  mine,  the  other  day,  gave  me  a  good  point  (which  I  think  worth  noting)  in 
the  use  of  sulphuret  of  potassium  ;  it  was  to  use  it  hot ;  and  it  is  really  surprising  what  a 
wonderful  printing-power  can  be  obtained  by  this  method  when  occasion  requires  it. — A.  M. 
DE  SILVA. 

Keferring  to  the  use  of  pyrogallic  acid  for  intensifying  or  strengthening  negatives  after 
development  with  iron,  I  stated  that  I  had  always  found  that  the  very  best  class  of  negatives 
of  a  beautiful  non-actinic  color  were  obtained  by  slightly  intensifying,  either  before  or  after 
fixing,  by  means  of  pyrogallic  acid  in  combination  with  acetic  acid.  The  following  formula, 
which  I  have  used  for  many  years,  may  always  be  depended  upon  to  produce  good  results : 

Pyrogallic  Acid, 45  grains. 

Citric  Acid, 10       " 

Glacial  Acetic  Acid, 1  ounce. 

Water  (distilled), 20  ounces. 

The  above  solution  should  be  poured  over  the  washed  plate,  and  then  returned  to  the  d^- 


108  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

the  photographer  soon  learns  to  depend  on  this  questionable  power,  and 
neglects  to  take  the  care  with  his  previous  manipulations  that  he  should. 
Thus  it  tends  to  make  the  careless  more  careless.  It  should  only  be  re- 
sorted to  as  a  sort  of  a  resuscitation  in  case  of  accident,  and  not  habitu- 
ally. With  the  hope  that  they  will  not  be  abused,  the  usual  methods 
are  given  in  the  notes  below. 

145.  As  portrait  photography  is  the  branch  of  the  art  now  chiefly 
under  consideration,  formulae  for  securing  much  greater  intensity  than 
any  of  these  will  be  deferred  until  further  on  in  this  work.  There  are 

veloping-cup,  and,  after  adding  a  few  drops  of  a  fifteen-grain  solution  of  pure  nitrate  of 
silver,  again  applied  to  the  plate.  If  the  latter  has  received  the  right  exposure,  full  print- 
ing density  is  very  quickly  obtained  ;  if,  however,  the  plate  has  apparently  been  much 
under-exposed,  the  pyrogallic  solution  of  the  above  strength  will  probably  act  too  energetically 
on  the  dense  parts  of  the  negative,  leaving  bare  glass  in  the  shadows,  and  producing  a  hard 
negative  with  too  much  contrast.  In  order  to  remedy  this,  and  obtain  more  detail  and 
softness  in  the  negative,  it  will  be  found  an  excellent  plan  to  avoid  forcing  in  the  first 
development,  and  to  increase  the  strength  of  the  redeveloping  solution  by  the  addition  of  dry 
pyrogallic  acid ;  the  latter  may  be  added  to  the  extent  of  ten  to  fifteen  grains  to  the  ounce 
of  solution.  This  addition  has  the  effect  of  curiously  changing  or  modifying  the  effect  of  the 
redeveloper,  which  seems  to  lose  the  power  of  piling  up  the  deposit  on  the  high-lights,  and 
acquires  the  faculty  of  bringing  out  the  detail  in  the  shadows  to  an  extraordinary  extent. — 
B.  J.  EDWARDS. 

Instead  of  pyrogallic  acid  solution,  I  have,  for  some  time  past,  at  the  suggestion  of  Dr. 
Yogel,  employed  the  ordinary  developer  for  the  purpose  of  intensifying  negatives.  This  is 
prepared  of 

Sulphate  of  Iron, 50  grammes. 

Glacial  Acetic  Acid, 30  " 

Water, 1000 

Or,  instead  of  the  above  amount  of  sulphate,  seventy  grammes  of  the  double  sulphate  of  iron 
and  ammonia  may  be  used. 

The  silver  solution,  used  in  equal  proportion  with  the  above,  consists  of 

Nitrate  of  Silver, 20  grammes. 

Citric  Acid, 30  " 

'Water, 1000 

K.  SCHWIBR. 

145.  Very  closely  allied  with  this  is  the  consideration  of  what  is  the  best  means  of  giving 
that  reinforcement  to  the  negative  which  is  sometimes  necessary  to  furnish  full  printing 
power.  I  have  before  laid  down  the  axiom  that,  given  collodion,  bath,  developer,  light,  and 
operator,  all  of  the  best,  the  negative  will  possess,  at  the  first  intention,  the  proper  printing 
qualities,  with  merely  addition,  and  often  not  even  that,  of  a  drop  of  silver'to  the  developer; 
but  in  practice,  we  all  know,  you  cannot  always  have  this  combination  of  excellences,  and 
then  the  negative,  not  possessing  sufficient  intensity,  reinforcement  becomes  desirable ;  and 
the  object  of  this  part  of  my  note  is  to  point  out  once  again  the  importance  of  letting  this 
be  the  result  of  coloration  rather  than  piling  up  by  silver  A  negative  having  its  printing- 


CHEMICALS    AND    SOLUTIONS.  109 

tWfies,  of  course,  when  all  these  will  have  to  be  resorted  to  in  order  to 
save  a  negative  which  cannot  he  replaced.  But,  as  a  rule,  the  exposure 
should  he  so  carefully  timed  as  not  to  require  any  reinforcing  of  the 
negative  whatever. 

146.  There  are  times,  too,  when,  by  under-exposure  or  unavoidable 
circumstances  of  light,  the  negative  is  too  dense  and  harsh,  thus  pro- 
ducing not  only  results  harsh  and  hard  in  tone  and  color,  but  producing 
them  with  a  slow  unwillingness  exasperating  to  the  printer.  It  is  well, 

power  by  the  first  development,  or  by  coloration,  looks,  when  varnished,  as  smooth  and  bright 
as  the  glass  itself;  whilst  intensification  by  silver  causes  it  to  have  a  clouded  appearance, 
partly  smooth  and  partly  rough. 

Mr.  Lacy  employed  the  solution  of  iodide  of  potassium  and  bichloride  of  mercury,  poured 
on  and  off  alternately,  and  his  pictures  have  been  equalled  by  very  few  ;  but,  unluckily, 
a  change  takes  place  in  negatives  thus  intensified  by  the  light,  and  the  negative  gradually 
loses  its  details  and  becomes  flat  and  poor.  But  a  far  better  effect  is  produced,  and  no  after 
change  takes  place,  when  a  solution  of  the  two  in  combination  is  employed.  Prepare  it  thus: 
Take  a  saturated  solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury,  and  add  a  ten-grain  solution  of  iodide 
of  potassium.  A  dense  vermilion  precipitate  of  iodide  of  mercury  is  seen,  and  the  potas- 
sium is  to  be  added  carefully  until  this  precipitate  is  exactly  redissolved.  This  is  very  im- 
portant. If  too  much  potassium  is  present,  this  negative  has  a  yellow  tinge  given,  which  is 
liable  to  change  under  solar  influence  ;  but  with  the  exact  quantity  of  each  a  very  rich  print- 
ing color  is  given.  It  may  be  kept  in  a  dropping-bottle,  and  about  ten  drops  in  an  ounce  of 
water  will  do  a  dozen  half-plate  negatives.  A  peculiarly  valuable  printing  quality  is  given 
by  this  means,  and  the  increase  is  so  gradual  that  special  parts  are  readily  brought  to  higher 
intensity  or  less,  as  desired. — SAMUEL  FRY. 

My  practice,  for  many  years  past,  has  been  to  so  manage  my  light  that  I  had  no  occasion 
to  intensify  the  negative,  for  I  have  long  held  an  opinion  that  the  most  perfect  results  could 
only  be  obtained  from  a  negative  on  which  no  deposit  of  silver,  other  than  that  which  came 
in  the  ordinary  course  of  development,  was  permitted  to  take  place.  It  has  frequently 
happened  that,  in  consequence,  I  have  created  difficulties  for  myself  which  a  little  denser 
deposit  of  silver  on  the  negative  would  have  entirely  removed.  The  results,  on  the  whole, 
have  been  so  much  more  to  my  taste,  and  the  difficulties  so  easily  removed  by  an  intelligent 
management  of  the  paper  in  printing,  that  I  have  been  well  content  to  go  on  in  the  same 
way.  Of  course,  it  would  be  quite  impossible,  except  at  the  present  time  of  year,  to  employ 
a  bath  of  one  hundred  grains  per  ounce,  and  get  from  the  negatives  I  have  indicated  the 
best  proof  possible;  for  though  the  deposit  is  comparatively  thin  on  the  negative,  the 
contrast  of  light  and  shade  is  greater  than  that  formed  in  the  generality  of  negatives  now 
produced.  Over-exposure  would  be  fatal  to  my  method  of  working. — VALENTINE  BLANCHARD. 

146.  A  secondary  exposure  of  the  sensitive  plate  to  light  before  development,  I  also  find, 
will  enable  me  to  make  a  passable  picture  where  the  exposure  in  the  camera  has  been  una- 
voidably too  short.  To  effect  this,  I  prefer  opening  the  shutter  of  the  dark-slide  within 
about  three  feet  of  an  ordinary  fishtail  burner  which  I  have  fixed  in  the  dark-room  ;  a  few 
seconds'  exposure  will  cause  a  slight  fogging  of  the  negative,  which,  in  the  case  of  a  subject 
presen  ing  strong  contrasts,  will  cause  the  resulting  prints  to  appear  softer  and  more  pleas- 


110  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

therefore,  to  have  a  means  at  hand  for  correcting  this  evil  also.     Various 
methods  of  doing  it  are  given  further  on,  to  which  refer  in  time  of  need. 
147.  VARNISH. — To  protect  the  delicate  film  from  injury  while  print- 
ing, the  negative  must  be  varnished  with  something  like  the  following : 

Alcohol, 28  ounces. 

Gum  Camphor,          ........         ^  ounce. 

Oil  of  Lavender,       .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         £       " 

Brown  Shellac  Gum,         .......       2  ounces. 

Gum  Sandarac,          ........       2  drachms. 

These  ingredients  are  placed,  in  a  bottle,  in  a  vessel  of  hot  water  over  the 
fire,  until  the  gums  are  dissolved.  Occasional  stirring  should  be  given, 
and  finally  the  whole  filtered  before  use.  Before  the  varnish  is  applied, 
the  last  trace  of  the  fixing  solution  must  be  washed  from  the  film. 

ing.  Of  course  care  and  judgment  must  be  used  throughout,  and  the  intensifying  of  the  neg- 
ative must  be  done  with  due  discretion.  As  the  gaslight  is  practically  a  fixed  quantity,  after 
a  few  trials  it  is  easy  to  cause  just  the  amount  of  fogging  necessary  for  removing  the  hard, 
bare  patches  in  an  otherwise  good  negative. — ALFRED  HUGHES. 

A  method  of  reducing  the  strength  of  negatives  proposed  by  Mr.  Letalle  promises  to  be  of 
much  value  for  other  purposes  than  a  mere  reduction  of  an  over-dense  negative,  the  process 
being  one  that  may  be  termed  suggestive.  He  operates  as  follows  in  the  case  of  pictures 
that  have  been  under-exposed  and  over-developed  so  as  to  force  out  the  shadows  :  The  neg- 
ative, after  having  undergone  all  the  ordinary  operations,  is  cleaned  and  washed,  remarking 
the  want  of  harmony  or  too  much  opacity.  He  pours  upon  it  quant,  suff.  of  a  solution  of 
fifteen  grains  of  chloride  of  gold  in  one  pint  of  water.  This  is  poured  alternately  from  the 
negative  into  a  glass,  and  from  the  glass  on  to  the  negative  till  the  picture  is  properly  dark- 
ened. He  then  washes  and  pours  on  a  corner  of  the  negative  sufficient  nitric  acid  to  cover 
it.  The  whole  of  the  silver  of  the  negative  is  dissolved  instantly,  and  the  picture  appears  to 
be  totally  gone.  On  washing  it  carefully  there  is  left  in  the  texture  of  the  collodion,  how- 
ever, an  image,  exceedingly -delicate,  of  reduced  gold.  This  picture  can  be  intensified  with 
the  greatest  facility  by  means  of  sulphate  of  iron,  in  the  first  instance,  the  picture  coming 
forth  with  the  greatest  transparency,  the  mezzotint  more  intense,  and  the  high-lights  re- 
maining transparent ;  or  by  means  of  pyrogallic  acid,  in  the  second  instance,  the  primitive 
connection  between  the  mezzotint  and  the  high-lights  being  the  same,  and  the  advantage  in 
this  case  lying  in  the  ability  to  check  the  reinforcement  on  this  side  of  the  first,  carried  on 
too  much.  The  golden,  delicate  picture  which  remains  after  the  use  of  the  nitric  acid  seems 
very  excellent  for  enlargements  by  the  solar  camera,  on  account  of  its  great  transparency 
and  delicacy. — J.  TRAILL  TAYLOR 

147.  CASTOR-OIL  IN  NEGATIVE  VARNISH. — Varnish  made  after  the  following  formula 
will  never  check  nor  split  on  the  negative. 

Alcohol, 2  quarts. 

White  Lac, .         .         .12  ounces. 

Gum  Sandarac,       ..........       1&     " 

Castor-Oil,  about  one  drop  to  each  ounce  of  varnish. 

UNKNOWN 


CHEMICALS  AND  SOLUTIONS.  HI 

148.  All  the  labor  and  all  the  art  thus  far  expended  upon  the  negative 
may  be  sacrificed  by  heedlessness  in  varnishing.  The  varnishing-rooms 
should  be  absolutely  free  from  dust.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  gently  sprinkle 
the  floor  before  beginning.  Some  varnishes  require  heat  both  for  their  ap- 
plication and  for  their  drying.  After  the  plates  are  varnished  they  should 
be  placed  in  a  rack  to  thoroughly  harden,  and  the  printing  paper  should 
never  be  allowed  to  touch  them  until  the  varnish  is  free  from  all  tacki- 
ness. Above  all,  let  no  dust  settle  on  the  varnished  surface  before  it  is 
hardened.  Beware  also  of  flies  and  insects. 

148.  The  method  I  have  adopted  for  some  time  past  is  simple,  efficient,  and  reliable ;  and 
if  not  novel,  is  still,  I  believe,  not  very  well  known.  It  is  to  flood  the  negative,  in  the 
first  place,  with  dilute  arnber  varnish,  and  when  dry,  to  coat  it  with  ordinary  hard  spirit 
varnish  ;  by  this  means  the  latter  does  not  come  into  hard  contact  with  the  collodion  film, 
and  the  alcoholic  solvent  is  therefore  without  any  action  upon  the  same.  Moreover,  double 
protection  is  thus  afforded  to  the  negative,  and  from  the  fact  that  the  intermediate  varnish 
film  is  of  a  pliant  and  elastic  nature,  there  appears  to  me  less  chance  of  any  injury  resulting 
to  the  negative  from  change  of  temperature,  splitting  of  the  film,  etc.  The  amber  varnish 
does  not  attack  the  negative  film,  by  reason  of  the  solvent  employed  (chloroform)  being  in- 
capable of  acting  upon  collodion. 

I  may  also  remark,  that  where  it  may  be  desirable  to  add  to  the  durability  of  a  negative — 
such,  for  instance,  as  when  a  large  number  of  copies  are  wanted — it  will  be  found  an  ad- 
vantage to  dissolve  in  the  ordinary  spirit  varnish  a  small  quantity  of  shellac,  which  will 
tend  to  give  a  harder  and  more  durable  coating  to  the  negative.  The  brown  or  orange 
shellac,  not  the  bleached  quality,  should  be  used ;  the  former  makes  the  varnish  somewhat 
darker  in  color,  but  this  is  of  no  consequence. — WM.  ENGLAND. 

The  property  which  wire-gauze  possesses  of  intercepting  the  passage  of  flame,  as  exempli- 
fied in  the  safety-lamp,  may  be  turned  to  account  in  the  varnishing  of  plates. 

A  clear  fire,  every  one  will  agree,  is  the  best  source  of  heat  in  the  operation  of  varnishing, 
but  there  are  times  when  it  is  not  possible  nor  convenient  to  have  fire-heat,  and,  in  that 
case,  the  spirit-lamp  or  Bunsen  burner  is  usually  resorted  to,  and  with  the  not  infrequent 
result  of  the  vapor  of  the  varnish  catching  fire,  to  the  detriment  of  the  coating  of  varnish. 

Now,  by  forming  a  strong  wire  frame  (somewhat  larger  than  the  plates  to  be  varnished), 
bent  on  one  of  its  sides  so  as  to  form  a  handle,  and  covering  this  with  fine  wire-gauze  (of 
either  copper  or  iron),  a  plate-holder  is  made,  upon  which  a  plate  coated  with  varnish  may 
be  warmed  without  the  slightest  danger  of  catching  fire.  The  plate  heated  on  this  "quid  " 
will  also  be  more  equally  heated  than  when  held  naked  over  the  flame. 

If  the  wire-gauze  is  simply  stretched  over  the  frame,  and  stretched  to  it  by  fine  wire, 
so  as  to  form  a  flat  bed  for  the  plate,  then  it  is  evident  that  there  must  be  something  to 
prevent  the  plate  from  falling  off  when  held  in  the  nearly  vertical  position  in  which  it  is 
desirable  the  coating  of  varnish  should  "set."  The  iron  frame,  if  formed  of  stout  wire, 
will  give  a  sufficient  rim  to  keep  the  plate  from  falling  off;  or  the  same  end  may  be  gained 
by  slightly  dishing  the  wire-gauze,  so  as  to  make  it  like  a  flat  photographic  tray,  or  by  even 
making  it  of  the  form  of  the  dipping-bath,  with,  of  course,  in  either  case,  a  wire  handle  to 
hold  it  by.— J.  W.  SWAN. 


LESSON"    G. 


FIG.  36 


FIG.  37. 


THE     MANIPULATIONS. 

149.  COLLODIONIZING. — With  a  stock  of  albumenized  plates  before  us,  we 
now  proceed  to  make  some  negatives.     In  a  collodion  pourer  at  our  right 

hand  is  our  collodion.  We  seize  the 
glass  plate  between  the  thumb  and 
fingers  of  the  left  hand,  at  the  left 
lower  corner,  raising  it  sufficiently  to 
permit  the  eye  to  scan  its  whole  sur- 
face,  holding  it  perfectly  level.  Keep 
the  breath  from  the  plate  and  gently, 
with  the  mouth  of  the  pourer  close 
to  the  plate,  pour  out  upon  it  a  small  oval  puddle  of  collodion,  sufficient 
to  cover,  say,  two-thirds  of  the  glass  surface.  Now  rock  gently  so  as  to 

cover  it  wholly  while  flowing  towards  the  right 
lower  corner,  whence  return  the  surplus  to 
your  pourer.  As  soon  as  the  surface  or  film 
is  dried  so  as  to  be  barely  tacky  to  the  finger, 
place  the  plate  upon  the  dipper,  still  holding 
it  in  a  horizontal  position,  that  the  film  may 
be  dried  evenly  before  it  enters  the  bath  solu- 
tion. 

150.  SENSITIZING. — The  plate  is  now  slowly 
and  gradually  lowered  into  the  sensitizing  so- 
lution, taking  care  not  to  stop  it  in  the  least 
until  it  is  thoroughly  covered,  lest  streaks  occur  upon  it.     It  may  be 

149.  When.a  glass  plate  is  coated  with  collodion  and  dipped  into  the  nitrate  balh,  the 
salts  of  iodine  and  bromine  will  decompose  and  iodide  and  bromide  of  silver  (which  are  very 
sensitive  to  light)  will  take  their  places  on  the  film,  while  a  combination  of  nitric  acid  with 
a  base  will  remain  in  the  bath. — DR.  H.  W.  YOGEL. 

150.  Observe  that  the  plate  should  always  be  put  in  the  plate-holder  in  the  same  direction 
\n  which  it  is  put  into  the  bath,  and  be  careful  at  all  times  to  keep  the  plate-holder  in  the 

(112) 


THE    MANIPULATIONS.  113 

"  churned  "  gently  up  and  down  while  in  the  bath  solution.     When  upon 
examination  the  film  appears  smooth  and  free  from  greasy-looking  lines 
it  is  ready  for  exposure,  and,  being  placed  in  the  dark-slide,  is  carried  to 
the  camera,  exposed,  and  brought  back  to  the  dark-room  for  develop- 
ment. 

151.  DEVELOPMENT. — Open  the  shutter  of  the  dark-slide,  tip  it  towards 
you  with  the  right  hand,  and  seize  the  plate  by  the  left  upper  corner  with 
the  left  hand,  holding  it  horizontally. 
Having  prepared  your  developer  before 
leaving  the  dark-room,  you  now  quickly 
pour  it  completely  over  the  film.  There 
should  be  no  hesitancy  about  this,  lest 
one  part  develop  more  rapidly  than 
the  other.  Rock  the  plate  back  and 
forth,  the  eye  sharp  upon  it,  to  prevent 
the  solution  from  gathering  in  uneven 
greasy  patches,  until  it  lies  smoothly 
and  does  its  work  properly.  If  rightly  exposed,  the  image  will  begin  to 
appear  in  six  seconds.  If  over-exposed,  it  will  not  be  so  slow  about  it. 

same  position.  Before  putting  the  plate  in  the  holder,  hold  it  up  to  the  light  a  moment, 
to  notice  the  density  of  the  film,  which  should  be  perfectly  smooth,  creamy,  not  bluish,  and 
semi-transparent.  You  will  observe  upon  returning  to  the  dark-room,  after  exposure,  that 
the  plate  has  gained  considerable  in  density  during  the  time  it  remained  in  the  holder, 
showing  conclusively  that  the  decomposition  was  still  going  on  during  exposure. — ELBERT 
ANDERSON. 

151.  The  developer  precipitates  the  silver  from  its  solutions  as  a  fine  metallic  powder,  and 
this  precipitate  is  formed  also  when  we  pour  an  iron  solution  on  a  collodion  plate  which  is 
still  tvet  from  an  adhering  silver  solution.  ^JVhen  this  solution  is  not  present,  sulphate  of  iron 
will  not  develop  a  picture.  Acid  has  more  the  property  to  maintain  the  development  clear 
than  to  retard  the  formation  of  a  precipitate.  Acetic  acid  also  causes  the  developer  to  flow 
readily  over  the  collodion  film.  Like  alcohol,  it  also  facilitates  the  adhesion  of  water  to  the 
collodion. — DR,  H.  W.  VOGEL. 

The  developed  picture,  viewed  by  transmitted  light,  differs  in  its  appearance,  even  when 
possessing  equally  favorable  printing  qualities.  There  are  variations  of  color  in  the  image, 
and  of  real  or  apparent  intensity  of  deposit,  which  are  caused  by  the  changes  and  relations 
towards  each  other  of  the  bath  and  collodion,  as  the  acidity  or  neutrality  of  the  one  or  the 
other  predominates.  Likewise,  independently  of  duration  of  exposure,  varieties  of  appear- 
ance are  caused  by  change  in  the  quality  of  the  light;  often  in  the  same  locality,  on  the 
same  day,  with  the  identical  chemicals,  negatives  differing  in  translucence  or  opacity  or 
color  are  produced,  but  which  may,  notwithstanding  their  varied  character,  all  have  nearly 
equal  properties. — LAKE  PRICE. 
8 


114  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

152.  FIXING. — The  plate  is  now  thoroughly  washed  and  then  placed  in 
a  tray  containing  the  fixing  solution.     Should  it  be  a  properly  exposed 
negative,  all  the  yellow  iodide  unacted  upon  by  the  light  will  have  been 
cleared  away  and  the  image  indelibly  fixed  upon  the  portions  of  the  film 
which  remain — a  perfect  negative. 

153.  INTENSIFYING. — It  should  be  the  effort  of  the  manipulator  to  so 
time  his  negatives  in  the  camera  as  not  to  be  compelled  to  resort  to  in- 
tensification.    It  is  a  bad  habit  to  get  into.     The  best  results  are  obtained 
without  it,  and  the  skill  of  the  good  photographer  is  proven  by  his  re- 
fraining from  it. 

154.  VARNISHING. — By  any  convenient  method  heat  the  negative  gently 
and  evenly,  until  the  hand  may  be  borne  upon  it  without  pain.     Now, 
from  the  varnish-bottle,  pour   upon  the  centre  of  the  plate  a  pool  of 
varnish,  in  the  same  manner  exactly  as  the  collodion  is  applied.     Pour 

152.  From  the  developed  picture   we  must  remove   the  sensitive  material,  iodide  and 
bromide  of  silver,, on  the  one  hand,  in  order  to  make  the  plate  transparent;  on  the  other 
Viand,  to  protect  it  against  further  changes  through  the  influence  of  light. — DR.  H.  W.  YOQEL. 

153.  INTENSIFIES. — This  term  is  used  to  denote  those  substances  which,  when  applied 
to  a  negative,  serve  to  increase  the  actinic  opacity  of  the  deposit  already  formed.     One  class 
of  intensifies  acts  by  increasing  the  deposit  of  silver  forming  the  image.     To  this  class 
belongs  a  mixture  of  protosulphate  of  iron  and  acid. — LAKE  PRICE. 

When  the  negative  has  been  assisted,  in  an  inefficient  exposure,  by  the  addition  of  drops 
of  nitrate  bath  to  the  developer,  the  peculiar  "  bloom  "  of  high  actinic  quality  will  not  ap- 
pear when  examined  by  diffused  light;  in  its  place  darker  tones  and  more  opaque  deposit  of 
a  blue  or  black  character  are  seen.  They  are  less  satisfactory,  being  deficient  in  the  truth 
and  delicacy  of  gradation  possessed  by  the  former,  and  are  apt  to  be  very  deceptive  when 
printed;  dark  and  vigorous-looking  negatives  occasionally  allowing  the  light  to  permeate 
through  their  texture,  whereas  the  most  translucent  of  these,  impressed  under  favorable  ac- 
tinic conditions,  have  a  great  power  of  resisting  it,  although  their  weak-looking,  light-brown 
deposit  would  appear  ill  adapted  to  do  so. — LAKE  PRICE. 

154.  The  best  printing  qualities  for  a  negative  to  possess  are  the  following  :  The  high-lights 
in  the  picture,  that  is  to  say,  the  most  intense  portions  of  the  deposit,  should  allow  the  flame 
of  a  candle  to  be  just  seen  through  when  held  behind  them  ;  if  of  too  great  an  opacity  to 
admit  of  its  being  perceived  at  all,  the  resulting  positives  will  probably  be  chalky  and  bare 
in  the  lights,  and  deficient  in  half-tones.      Very  small  portions,  representing  actual  white, 
should  be  of  absolute  opacity.     There  should  be  a  general  deposit  of  silver,  with  considerable 
variations  of  intensity  over  the  whole  surface,  with  the  exception  of  the  most  vigorous  darks, 
and  in  them  it  should  approach  very  nearly  to  the  bare  glass,  but  only  in  small  portions; 
if  in  large  masses,  it  would  denote  under-exposure.     Held  up  to  the  light,  their  color  should 
be  of  a  warm  inky  brown  ;  when  the  plate  is  held  horizontally  over  a  dark  ground,  and 
viewed,  by  diffused  light,  the  appearance  which  especially  distinguishes  the  deposit  on  the 
film  in  all  negatives  of  the  highest  capabilities  is  a  warm  drab  color,  technically  termed 


THE    MANIPULATIONS.  115 

off  the  residue  into  a  separate  vessel,  to  settle  before  using  again.  Keep 
the  plate  in  a  horizontal  position  until  the  varnish  be  nearly  set,  and  then 
stand  it  upon  nails  driven  into  the  wall  or  upon  a  rack  to  dry.  See  148. 

155.  RETOUCHING  THE  XEGATIVE. — After  the  negative  is  varnished,  it 
must  be  retouched.     This  is  done  by  means  of  lead-pencils  of  various 
grades,  which  are  so  worked  by  hand  or  machinery  as  to  improve  the 
printing  qualities  and  the  appearance  of  the  model,  too.     The  greatest 
care  should  be  exercised  by  the  retoucher  not  to  alter  the  likeness  or  overdo 
the  thing.     The  roughness  of  the  skin,  freckles,  and  blemishes  need  to  be 
obliterated,  but  the  half-tone  in  the  negative  must  also  be  carefully  and 
judiciously  preserved,  lest  all  the  charm  of  the  picture  be  gone. 

156.  For  this  work  a  retouching-frame  or  desk  is  needed;  a  few  of 
Faber's  black  lead-pencils ;  black-lead  powrder ;  India  ink ;  a  few  sable 
hair-brushes,  and  some  stumps.     There  are  various  preparations  also  for 
giving  a  "  tooth  "  to  the  varnished  surface,  which  must  be  applied  in  order 
to  make  it  take  or  "bite"  the  pencil.     A  rough  proof  from  the  nega- 
tive should  be  before  you  to  guide  you.     Once  knowing  what  is  required, 
one  can,  by  careful  practice,  become  expert  in  a  short  time  in  this  delicate 
and  important  operation.     This  done,  the  negative  is  ready  for  the  printer. 

"bloom"  in  negatives  developed  by  pyrogallic  solution;  in  those  by  iron  it  is  rather  more 
silvery  gray  and  metallic.  Such  negatives  are  sure  to  print  well ;  all  the  objects  represented 
by  them  will  be  rotund  in  appearance,  because  their  forms  are  thoroughly  delineated  by 
delicate  half-tints,  and  the  extremes  of  light  and  dark,  with  all  the  intermediate  tones,  will 
be  well  expressed.  Their  effects  will  be  bright  and  spirited,  equally  removed  from  the  vapid 
monotony  of  over-exposed  negatives,  which,  deficient  alike  in  both  whites  and  blacks,  lose 
the  power  of  the  scale  and  range  of  chiaro-oscuro  which  the  two  extremes  should  give  them, 
and,  from  the  crude  and  misshapen  forms  of  the  under-exposed,  which  fail  because  wanting 
the  softening  beauty  and  drawing  given  by  middle  tints. — LAKE  PRICE. 

155.  Retouching  the  negative  has  grown  somewhat  unpopular  from  excess  or  lack  of  skill, 
but  seems  to  me  quite  legitimate  work.     But  that  is  not  the  kind  of  aid  of  which  I  am 
thinking.     I  have  lately  been  examining  some  of  the  best  plain  photographic  portraits  I  can 
find,  and  they  seem  to  me  to  be,  as  the  artist  says,  "out  of  keeping."     At  first  sight  they 
appear  perfect,  and  all  right,  but  they  don't  wear  well.     After  a  little  study  they  grow 
weak,  and,  unlike  good  art,  they  do  not  reveal  some  fresh  beauty  every  day.     The  likeness  is 
there,  but  is  thin  and  spectral. — CHARLES  AKERS. 

156.  Retouching,  like  any  other  good  thing,  is  liable  to  abuse,  and  it  is  due  to  this  abuse 
that  the  opposition  to  it  has  arisen.     Unfortunately,  in  a  great  majority  of  cases,  the  re- 
touching of  a  negative  is  intrusted  to  unskilled  hands, — persons  who  have  no  idea  of  the 
drawing  and  modelling  of  a  face,  the  artistic  effect  of  the  touch,  or  even  the  printing 
requirements  of  a  negative.     This  i.s  all  wrong.     Retouching  should  only  be  done  by  an 
artist — I  mean  a  person  wilh  artistic  taste  and  ability  (for  all  of  the  so-called  artists  do  not 
possess  these  qualities). — N.  H.  BUSEY. 


LESSON    H. 

MANIPULATORY     MISERIES. 

157.  FROM  what  has  been  written  of  photographic  manipulation  thus 
far,  it  would  seem  to  be  all  clear  sailing.     But  it  is  not.     Troubles  innu- 
merable occur  continually — daily — which  baffle  all  our  experience,  and 
which  would  send  us  far  out  at  sea  oftentimes,  were  there  not  sundry— 
not  always  certain — indications  to  prevent  too  much  drifting,  to  hail  us 
and  to  guide  us  on  the  journey.     It  should  be  the  rule  with  every  care- 
ful manipulator  to  act  as  soon  as  the  least  danger-signal  makes  its  appear- 
ance.    Make  no  delay  in  tracing  whatever  trouble  or  defect  comes  to  its 
very  source,  and  annihilate  it,  if  you  can,  immediately.     Stop  the  leak, 
disperse  the  fog,  turn  from  the  storm  impending  as  soon  as  the  "  indica- 
tions "  warn  you.     Thus  much  trouble  and  loss  will  be  avoided.     Care- 
lessness, uncleanliness,  lack  of  attention  to  what  you  know,  and  lack  of 
desire  to  do  well,  are  the  great  causes  of  annoyance. 

158.  The  troublous  effects,  or  defects,  will  now  be  treated  fully.     One 
of  the  most  common,  and  therefore  the  oftenest  met,  is  known  as  veil  or 

157.  I  have  travelled  a  great  deal,  and  have  found  the  trouble  solely  this:    that   the 
photographers  who  do  not  have  success  in  working  have  no  rule  or  system  to  work  by ;  and 
if  so,  they  neglect  it  and  are  careless.     Now,  my  rule  is  as  follows:  Use  your  chemicals  as 
you  do  yourself.     In  cold  weather  strengthen  them,  and  keep  them  in  a  temperate  state. 
Test  everything  ;  never  guess,  as  it  is  commonly  called.    Be  sure  you  are  right,  then  go  ahead, 
and  success  is  certain. — CARL  VON  MOELKE. 

Then,  when  once  you  are  in  a  decently  clean  shape,  for  the  love  of  humanity,  the  respect 
you  ought  to  have  for  the  profession  you  have  chosen  (from  whatever  motives),  do  not  let  a 
lot  of  old  trash  or  dirt  accumulate.  If  we  ever  expect  to  be  anything  but  poor  photographers 
(in  every  sense  of  the  word),  if  we  ever  expect  to  bring  our  profession  up  "  to  the  mark  of 
its  high  calling,"  if  we  ever  expect  the  "  dear  public  "  to  respect  us,  and  ever  speak  of  us  in 
any  other  way  than  as  "  only  a  photographer,"  we  must  come  to  that  point  where  we  can  at 
least  respect  ourselves. — H.  R  FARR. 

158.  FOGGING. — When  a  precipitate  is  thrown  down  over  the  entire  plate  by  the  action 
of  the  developer,  so  as  to  obscure,  in  the  deepest  shadows,  the  transparency  of  the  glass 
when  looked  through,  that  precipitate  is  called  "fog, "and  the  picture  is  said  to  be  "fogged." 
The  principal  causes  of  fog  are :  alkalinity  of  the  nitrate  of  silver  bath,  or  neutrality  of  the 


MANIPULATORY    MISERIES.  117 

fog.  It  is  as  insidious  as  foul  air,  and  both  causes  and  hides  many  other 
imperfections.  It  is  caused  in  many  ways.  Among  them  the  following 
surely  produce  fogging  :  1,  want  of  union  between  the  collodion  and  the 
nitrate  bath ;  2,  wrant  of  sufficient  acid  in  the  developer ;  3,  want  of  suf- 
ficient acid  in  the  nitrate  bath  (or  an  excess  of  acid  will  sometimes  pro- 
duce the  same  effect) ;  4,  diffused  white  light  in  the  dark-room,  camera, 
etc.,  caused  by  not  shutting  the  door  close;  having  cracks  and  chinks  in 
the  partitions ;  not  having  the  yellow  glass  sufficiently  dense  to  obstruct 
all  the  white  light;  taking  the  plate  out  of  the  bath  too  near  the  gas  or 
lamp,  and  by  developing  too  near  the  same ;  by  want  of  care  in  rede- 
veloping, and  light  reflected  from  surrounding  objects,  thereby  obstruct- 
ing the  direct  rays  from  the  sitter,  which  alone  should  pass  through  the 
lens.  It  may  also  be  caused  by  excessive  over-exposure,  and  by  under- 
exposure, with  too  long  a  development ;  also  by  keeping  the  plate  too 
long  after  taking  it  out  of  the  bath  before  development.  It  is  also  very 
frequently  caused  by  the  fumes  of  ammonia,  turpentine,  and  other  vola- 
tile chemicals  standing  about  upon  the  shelves  of  the  dark-room.  It  is 
easy  to  produce  foggy  negatives  without  the  chemicals  being  in  fault. 

159.  How  are  we  to  tell,  then,  the  cause  of  this  monstrous  trouble  ? 
We  naturally  look  first  at  the  chemicals.  Is  it  in  them  or  not  ?  How 

same  when  a  bromo-iodized  collodion  is  used  ;  over-acidity  of  the  bath  ;  diffused  light,  either  in 
the  camera  or  dark-room ;  dirty  plates  ;  and  sometimes  from  the  lens  itself.  An  alkaline  bath 
and  a  very  acid  one  seem  to  have  very  similar  properties  as  respects  "  fogging."  It  is  only 
when  the  acid  and  alkaline  elements  are  properly  balanced,  so  as  to  suit  the  nature  of  the 
collodion,  that  a  good  photographic  negative  can  be  obtained.  No  collodion  can  be  worked 
in  an  alkaline  bath,  but  a  pure  simply  iodized  collodion  when  it  turns  to  a  pale  sherry  color, 
can  be  used  with  the  best  effect  in  an  absolutely  neutral  nitrate  solution.  Collodion,  paper, 
or  any  sensitive  medium  which  contains  besides  the  iodide  an  organic  compound,  must 
always  be  sensitized  in  an  acid  bath  to  prevent  "  fogging."  Should  the  bath  "  fog  "  upon 
trying  a  plate,  and  the  cause  be  in  the  bath,  add  five  or  ten  drops  of  nitric  acid,  stir  well, 
and  try  another  plate. — ELBERT  ANDERSON. 

159.  "Fogging"  is  a  general  obliteration  of  the  forms  of  the  subject  in  an  opaque  film, 
which  prevents  them  from  being  clearly  distinguished,  in  whatever  direction  they  may  be 
viewed.  This  is  caused  in  a  variety  of  ways.  It  may  result  from  the  unskilful  use  of  the 
developer  itself;  if  it  is  of  too  great  strength  in  warm  weather,  when  it  should  have  been 
reduced  in  power  by  the  addition  of  distilled  water  and  acid,  "fogging  "  will  ensue,  or,  at  a 
more  moderate  temperature,  prolonging  the  time  of  development  beyond  a  certain  limit 
will  cause  the  same  blemish.  If  weakening  the  solution  in  the  one  case,  and  shortening  the 
developer  in  the  other,  does  not  remedy  the  evil,  the  nitrate  bath  must  be  tested  for  alkalinity 
with  reddened  litmus  or  turmeric  paper. 

When  there  is  only  a  very  slight  tendency  to  "fog,"  it  is  better  not  to  touch  or  alter  the 


118  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

shall  we  determine  it  ?  We  will  make  a  search.  Darken  the  room  and 
light  the  gas.  Take  a  perfectly  clean  plate,  coat  it  Avith  collodion,  dip  it 
as  usual  in  the  bath,  and  cover  it  over.  While  it  is  coating,  take  the 
plate-holder  and  lay  it  flat  down,  open  it  and  put  in  a  negative,  varnished 
side  up.  Then  lay  a  narrow  strip  of  cardboard  on  each  end  of  the  neg- 
ative, so  that  when  the  sensitized  plate  is  put  in  it  will  be  as  near  in  con- 
tact with  the  other  as  possible,  without  touching.  The  plate  being  now 
coated,  turn  down  the  light  to  the  lowest  point,  remove  the  plate  from 
the  bath,  and,  after  draining  it  carefully,  lay  it  collodion  side  down  upon 
the  strips  of  cardboard,  and  fasten  the  frame.  Now  turn  up  the  light,  and 
hold  the  plate-holder  three  or  four  inches  from  the  gas,  draw  the  slide, 
and  expose  it  four  or  five  seconds ;  if  the  light  should  be  a  lamp,  expose 
longer;  shut  the  slide,  and  then  turn  dowrn  the  light  as  before,  and  de- 
velop. The  result  will  be  a  positive  by  transmitted  light.  If  it  is  clear 
and  brilliant,  free  from  fog,  there  is  no  fault  writh  the  chemicals. 

160.  If  on  the  other  hand  it  proves  foggy,  the  trouble  is  probably  in 
the  collodion,  because,  if  the  bath  is  made  according  to  directions,  and 

bath  ;  by  using  a  more  highly  colored  sample  of  collodion  perfect  clearness  of  definition  will 
be  restored  to  the  film,  whilst  at  the  same  time  every  plate  of  such  quality  of  collodion  that 
is  dipped  will  tend  gradually  to  displace,  more  and  more,  the  small  tendency  to  alkalinity 
existing  in  the  bath. — LAKE  PRICE. 

160.  The  developer  will  naturally  reduce  the  silver  on  any  part  of  the  plate  that  has  been 
"struck"  by  light;  this  will  be  in  irregular  masses,  and  only  at  such  places  of  the  plate  as 
were  "  light  struck."  The  collodion  is  rarely,  if  ever,  the  cause  of  fogging,  for  a  collodion 
made  as  I  have  directed  cannot  be  or  become  alkaline  ;  for  if  it  should  be  colorless  when  first 
made,  I  have  directed  the  use  of  a  few  drops  of  tincture  of  iodine,  or  the  addition  of  one- 
fourth  of  its  volume  of  an  old  and  red  collodion  made  by  the  same  formula. 

If  the  chemicals  have  been  prepared  according  to  the  directions  given,  and  the  bath  is 
slightly  acid,  as  also  will  be  the  collodion,  fogging  cannot  occur  until  the  bath  becomes  dis- 
ordered, or  a  change  is  made  in  the  collodion  or  in  the  developer.  Coat  a  plate  carefully, 
and  immerse  it  in  the  bath  slowly ;  when  properly  coated,  develop  it  (exactly  as  if  it  had 
been  exposed,  and  keep  on  the  developer  for  about  the  same  length  of  time);  wash  off  the  de- 
veloper under  the  tap  and  "  fix."  If  a  universal  layer  of  mistiness  cover  the  entire  plate,  and 
lie  only  on  the  film  and  not  in  it,  the  bath  is  in  fault ;  if,  however,  there  should  be  any  portion 
of  the  plate  perfectly  clear,  the  chemicals  are  not  to  blame.  Should  the  bath  prove  alkaline, 
which  is  not  to  be  expected,  the  cause  of  fogging  in  this  instance  is  the  presence  of  organic 
matter,  which  a  slight  addition  of  nitric  acid  will  dissolve.  Should  the  bath  prove  acid,  no 
more  acid  should  be  added  at  this,  nor  at  any  other  time,  to  the  bath.  If  a  newly  prepared 
bath  "  fog  "  but  very  slightly,  let  it  stand  quiet  all  night,  and  it  will  be  found  to  work  clean 
and  bright  on  the  morrow. — ELBERT  ANDERSON. 

With  certain  kinds  of  developers  there  will  form,  after  a  lapse  of  twenty,  fifty,  or  some- 
times of  sixty  or  eighty  seconds,  on  the  surface  of  the  liquid  floating  figures  of  a  description 


MANIPULATORY    MISERIES.  119 

without  doubt  is  slightly  acid,  the  chances  are  not  one  in  a  hundred  that 
the  trouble  is  there.  So,  in  such  a  case,  examine  the  collodion ;  if  it  is  a 
very  pale  color,  it  is  neutral  and  perhaps  alkaline.  This  is  the  very  worst 
state  it  could  be  in  if  clear  negatives  are  desired.  An  alkaline  collodion 
coming  in  contact  with  an  acid  bath  causes  a  slight  effervescence,  which 
is  fatal  to  a  perfect  union  between  the  collodion  and  bath.  To  secure 
perfect  harmony  between  them,  if  one  is  slightly  acid  the  other  should 
also  be.  Such  a  condition  is  far  preferable  to  a  neutral  one. 

161.  The  nitrate  bath  probably  comes  in  for  more  censure  than  any  of 
the  solutions  used  in  photography.  It  is  often  innocent,  and  more  often 

exactly  similar  to  the  appearances  produced  by  this  sort  of  fogging  upon  the  plate.  Thej 
consisted  of  groupings  of  particles  of  metallic  silver,  changing  their  shape  and  figure  al 
every  instant,  but  always  having  a  resemblance  to  the  figuring  of  marbled  paper,  which  is 
made,  as  every  one  knows,  precisely  in  a  similar  way,  by  the  distribution  of  colored  films  on  the 
surface  of  water,  from  which  they  are  transferred  to  the  surface  of  the  paper.  Just  in  the  same 
way  these  curious  silver  figures  are  presently  transferred  to  the  surface  of  the  plate,  to  the 
inexpressible  annoyance  and  discomfiture  of  the  operator.  Why  films  thus  loosely  deposited 
should  adhere  with  such  tenacity  to  the  collodion,  it  is  difficult  to  say;  perhaps  they  are 
presently  soldered  fast  by  the  advancing  deposits  of  silver. 

Almost  all  developers  when  examined  in  this  way,  by  daylight  in  a  capsule,  showed  a 
tendency  to  this  form  of  fogging  if  their  action  was  continued  long  enough.  Developers 
which  quickly  become  muddy  show  these  figures  simultaneously  with  the  muddiness,  but 
they  were  smaller  and  less  marked.  Strong  and  well-balanced  developers  did  not  shew 
them  nearly  so  soon ;  but  they  were  larger  and  most  conspicuous,  and  would  present  themselves 
when  there  was  not  the  slightest  turgidily  in  the  liquid.  It  seems  like  a  sort  of  reversed 
development — a  development  upwards  instead  of  downwards. 

These  spots  first  form  and  show  themselves  on  the  surface  of  the  liquid,  on  which  they 
float  freely.  When  the  plate  is  tilted  in  order  to  pour  off  the  developer,  they  do  not  follow 
the  liquid;  but  the  latter  slips  out  from  between,  and  deposits  them  delicately  on  the  film. 
It  would  seem,  then,  that  if  the  plate  were  carefully  watched,  keeping  the  eye  on  the  surface 
of  the  film,  as  well  as  on  the  developed  image,  and  the  moment  a  tendency  to  the  formation 
of  these  figures  was  detected,  the  operator,  instead  of  pouring  off  the  developer,  was  to 
quickly  set  the  plate  (always  holding  it  quite  level)  under  a  good  stream  of  water  issuing 
from  a  rose,  these  figures  could  not  get  down  to  the  film.  It  is  not  their  nature  to  sink 
through  ;  they  seem  to  adhere  to  the  surface,  and  only  reach  the  film  by  being  left  behind  by 
the  retiring  wave  of  water,  and  then  the  whole  stratum  of  developer  is  suddenly  washed 
away  by  a  stream  of  water  which  floods  the  whole  surface.  The  floating  figures  must  be 
carried  away  without  an  opportunity  of  fastening  themselves  to  the  film. — M.  CAREY  LEA. 

161.  I  could  write  a  chapter  expressive  of  my  annoyance  at  that  disgrace  to  professional 
photography — a  dirty  operator.  In  no  respect  does  he  more  exhibit  his  obnoxious  character 
than  in  the  way  he  misuses  the  nitrate  of  silver  solution.  He  splashes  the  walls  with  it,  stains 
the  floor,  corrodes  the  metal-work,  rots  the  dark-slide  and  camera,  spoils  curtains,  chairs, 
and  carpets,  saturates  his  clothes,  dyes  his  hair,  blackens  his  hands,  and  defaces  his 


120  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

abused  and  misused.  While  it  is  the  photographer's  best  friend,  it  is 
hated  by  him  as  though  a  "  poor  relation,"  and  for  years  the  inventive 
genii  of  the  craft  have  been  racking  their  brains  for  some  means  of  abol- 
ishing it,  The  bromo-gelatin  process  promises  much,  but  we  cannot 
give  up  the  nitrate  bath  for  a  time  yet.  Therefore,  a  few  more  thoughts 
concerning  it  and  its  treatment  properly  belong  here.  If  difficulties 
occur  with  it,  nine  cases  out  of  ten  they  result  "from  the  neglect  of  your- 
self. It  may  be  you  abuse  it — it  may  be  you  have  overworked  it.  To 
discover  the  trouble,  the  first  step  is  to  test  its  strength  by  any  of  the 
well-known  methods.  Pile's  silver-test  is  the  best. 

162.  Oftentimes  a  simple  means  of  rectifying  the  bath  is  sufficient  to 
put  it  in  perfect  working  order.  If  it  is  too  acid,  cyanide  of  potassium 

countenance.  The  idea  never  seems  to  occur  to  him  that  the  solution  was  not  intended  for 
any  one  of  these  purposes,  and  that  it  is  not  only  wasted,  but  doubly  so,  by  doing  nothing 
but  injury  by  its  misuse. — ALFRED  HUGHES. 

This  method,  which  has  been  proposed  by  Professor  Towler,  consists,  in  brief,  in  pre- 
cipitating the  metal  by  means  of  zinc,  drying  and  fusing  it  to  a  metallic  globule,  and  then 
weighing  it.  Take  an  ounce  of  the  bath  solution.  Next,  in  a  porcelain  vessel  place  a  slip 
of  zinc  weighing  about  half  an  ounce,  together  with  an  ounce  of  water  and  a  drachm  of 
sulphuric  acid.  Effervescence  will  at  once  take  place,  and  during  this  the  silver  solution  is 
stirred  in.  The  silver  rapidly  deposits  as  a  gray  powder.  After  a  few  minutes,  brush  off 
the  silver  from  the  zinc  with  a  hair  pencil,  add  water,  and  wash  several  times,  taking  care 
that  no  silver  is  allowed  to  escape.  Now  drain  off  the  water  and  dry  the  mass  ;  mix  it  with 
about  twice  its  weight  of  borax,  and  fuse  it  by  a  blow-pipe  flame.  The  quantity  of  silver  per 
ounce  of  solution  will  thus  be  seen.  But  Professor  Towler's  method,  as  described,  is  not 
quite  so  good  as  the  following  method :  Take  a  measured  ounce  of  the  bath  solution  and 
immerse  in  it  a  strip  of  magnesium  ribbon,  stirring  well.  Silver  is  at  once  thrown  down, 
and  after  ten  minutes  a  few  drops  of  acetic  acid  are  added  to  dissolve  all  traces  of  magnesium. 
The  silver  deposited  is  free  from  all  impurities.  It  is  washed  and  fused  as  before.  Twelve 
grains  of  magnesium  will  precipitate  one  hundred  and  eight  grains  of  metallic  silver.  This, 
as  I  have  said,  is  a  more  convenient,  simple,  and  accurate  way  of  testing  the  strength  of  a 
silver  bath  than  that  proposed  by  Dr.  Towler,  and  it  can  be  very  strongly  recommended. — 
J.  TRAILL  TAYLOR. 

162.  The  value  of  permanganate  of  potash  for  rectifying  disordered  negative  baths  and 
printing  baths  has  received  much  confirmation  during  the  past  year.  A  correspondent  of 
one  of  the  journals  describes  his  experience  thus  : 

"Permanganate  of  Potash, 15  grains. 

Pure  Water,    ...........       4  ounces. 

"  I  poured  into  my  bath  about  a  teaspoonful  of  the  above.  In  one  minute  it  had  the  appear- 
ance of  very  dirty  ink.  I  filtered  it,  after  which  it  looked  very  yellow  ;  I  dropped  in  a  little 
more  of  the  permanganate,  and  pet  it  in  the  sun  for  ten  minutes.  It  then  assumed  a  clear, 
bright,  pink  appearance;  I  filtered  again,  and  again  set  the  solution  in  the  sun.  In  fifteen 
minutes  the  excess  of  permanganate  had  precipitated  in  the  shape  of  a  black,  gummy-looking 


MANIPULATOKY    MISERIES.  121 

may  be  used,  or  nitrate  of  barytes  is  often  found  helpful.  The  per- 
manganate of  potash  is  also  resorted  to  with  good  results.  The  choice 
of  these  should  depend  upon  circumstances  and  conditions,  though  their 
action  is  much  alike. 

163.  In  handling  a  bath  solution,  much  waste  may  occur  if  the  operator 
is  not  careful  in  pouring  the  solution  to  and  from  the  bath-holder.     A 
siphon    may  be  used   for   the  larger   solutions  with  greater  assurance 
against  accident  and  loss.     With  care,  no  loss  need  necessarily  occur  by 
either  method. 

164.  One  of  the  gentlest    neans  of  curing  a  disordered  bath  is  by  giv- 

matter.  I  coated  a  plate,  and  placed  my  subject,  exposed,  developed,  and  the  nicest  chemical 
effect  I  had  ever  seen  was  the  result.  I  have  worked  that  bath  for  six  weeks  with  all  sorts 
of  collodions,  and  only  once  has  it  given  a  foggy  picture ;  then  a  few  drops  of  the  perman- 
ganate set  it  right." 

Another  correspondent,  speaking  of  its  use  in  printing-baths,  says,  "  I  proceed  as  follows: 
"  Permanganate  of  Potash,       ........     1  drachm. 

Water, 2  ounces. 

Dissolve  the  permanganate  in  water,  and  add  with  caution  to  the  old  bath  until  you  obtain 
a  milky-purplish  color  ;  let  it  remain  over  night,  after  giving  it  a  thorough  shaking.  You 
will  find  quite  a  large  amount  of  foul  matter  has  fallen  during  the  night.  The  solution  can 
now  be  filtered  nearly  clear.  Now  proceed  as  with  an  old  negative  bath,  which  is,  to  add 
the  solution  of  permanganate  of  potash  as  above  to  this  filtered  solution  until  you  obtain  a 
stronk  pink  color  ;  let  it  remain  for  a  few  hours,  after  stirring  well  before  filtering ;  if  quite 
alkaline,  add  nitric  acid  until  it  turns  litmus-paper  pretty  deeply  red,  then  aqua  ammonia 
until  it  is  as  alkaline  as  you  usually  use  your  bath." — G.  WHARTON  SIMPSON. 

163.  The  following  is  a  good  way  to  empty  a  bath-holder  without  wasting  the  contents. 
Simply  use  a  white  cotton  string  or  twine,  tied  about  an  inch  or  so  from  the  edge,  and  if  the 
glass  and  twine  are  dry  not  a  drop  will  be  wasted. — J.  L.  GIHON. 

Take  any  length  of  rubber  hose,  of  size  required  for  business  in  hand,  press  one  end  tightly 
on  a  wooden  roller  (almost  anything  will  do),  rolling  up  till  just  enough  is  left  to  reach  in  the 
solution  ;  be  sure  you  keep  it  there,  and  commence  unwinding,  keeping  the  end  not  in  the 
solution  held  tight,  pass  it  in  the  bottle  or  hold  over  the  vessel  used  ;  in  this  way  you  will 
find  the  solution  to  pass  over  and  out  readily.  I  think  this  is  more  feasible  than  the  one 
with  glass  tube  intervening,  but  that  is  very  good. — J.  C.  GOETCHIUS. 

Another  thing  which  may  be  new,  and  therefore  valuable  to  some  of  you,  is,  how  to  draw 
off  your  bath.  Get  a  piece  of  rubber  tubing,  say  four  feet  long,  put  one  end  in  the  bath  and 
drop  until  all  is  covered  except  just  your  finger-hold  ;  pinch  lightly,  pull  out,  and  insert  in  the 
mouth  of  a  bottle.  When  that  is  full,  pinch  together  until  you  direct  into  another  bottle. 
In  this  way,  simply  by  having  the  tubing  reach  the  bottom  of  the  bath,  and  discharging  out- 
side at  an  inch  or  two  lower,  you  can  draw  off  your  whole  bath  without  much  trouble  and 
with  no  waste. — N.  D.  RANDALL. 

164.  A  QUICK  WAY  TO  SUN  A  BATH. — Pour  it  out  into  a  flat  porcelain  dish  and  leave 
it  in  the  sun,  sheltered  from  the  dust.      The  bath  should  first  be  neutralized,  say  with 


122  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

ing  it  a  sun-bath.  Many  disbelieve  in  such  treatment,  but  it  is  largely 
practised  and  is  very  good.  It  is  slower  than  some  other  means  used, 
but  it  is  none  the  less  sure,  and  is  certainly  not  liable  to  accident. 

165.  Another  method  is  to  "  boil  down  "  the  bath.  The  water  and 
other  fluids  it  contains  are  thus  evaporated,  when  the  silver  crystals  are 
again  dissolved  in  water  as  when  the  bath  solution  w^as  originally  made. 
A  still  further  method  is  to  fuse  the  silver,  the  advantages  of  such  a 
method  being  considered  greater  than  those  gained  by  simple  evapora- 
tion to  dryness. 

carbonate  of  soda.  In  a  few  hours  a  black  scum  will  t3  found  on  the  surface  of  the  bath. 
This  can  readily  be  removed  by  a  strip  of  blotting-paper,  and  the  solution  is  again  free  to 
the  action  of  the  sunlight.  This  should  be  repeated  every  few  hours  until  the  bath  remaim 
clear,  or  nearly  so,  when  it  is  ready  to  be  filtered  and  diluted  by  the  addition  of  water,  for. 
as  will  be  readily  understood,  during  the  process  of  sunning  in  a  flat,  open  dish,  there  has 
been  considerable  evaporation  of  both  water,  alcohol,  and  ether.  After  being  diluted,  filtered, 
and  acidified,  it  will  be  found  to  work  as  well  as  ever  it  did,  free  from  streaks,  stains,  and 
pinholes.  The  advantage  of  the  dish  over  the  bottle,  so  generally  used  in  sunning,  is,  that 
the  black  scum  which  collects  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  bottle  obstructs  the  rays  of  the 
sun,  and  prevents  the  free  access  of  light  to  the  solution,  and  thus  renders  the  process  of 
sunning  much  more  lengthy  and  tedious  than  when  the  dish  is  used. — J.  L.  GIHON. 

I  should  be  very  sorry  to  show  disrespect  to  any  one  whose  opinion  differs  from  mine;  nor 
do  I  intend  to.  I  only  wish  to  express  my  own  very  forcibly  in  regard  to  "sunning"  the 
bath.  That  is  all  bosh  !  It  can  possibly  do  no  harm  and  does  some  good  ;  but  half  an  hour's 
boiling  is  worth  a  year's  "sunning." — ELBERT  ANDERSON. 

165.  There  is  a  compound  of  silver  which  'a  photographer  might  unwittingly  produce — 
the  fulminate  of  silver.  If  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  containing  nitric  acid  be  warmed, 
and  alcohol  added,  a  white  precipitate  forms,  which  is  the  compound  in  question.  A  pho- 
tographer evaporating  to  dryness  an  acid  bath  which  had  long  been  in  use,  and  contained 
alcohol,  might  find  himself  and  his  dishes  elsewhere  towards  the  termination  of  the  boiling 
down  of  the  solution. — OLD  ARGENT UM. 

To  fuse  a  bath  pour  the  bath  into  one-fourth  its  volume  of  water,  and  filter  out  the  pre- 
cipitated iodide  ;  place  the  solution  into  an  evaporating-dish  on  the  stove,  and  evaporate  to 
dryness,  without  neutralizing  with  ammonia  or  any  other  agent.  As  the  solution  becomes 
dry,  a  series  of  phenomena  takes  place;  minute  bubbles  commence  forming  in  the  centre  of 
the  dish  and  gradually  spread  out  to  the  sides.  They  increase  in  size  and  become  violent  in 
action,  finally  breaking  open  and  emitting  masses  of  vapor.  When  this  has  all  ceased, 
scrape  the  mass  into  the  centre  of  the  dish,  where  it  will  commence  to  liquefy  again  ;  or,  in 
other  words,  to  melt.  It  will  soon  have  the  appearance  of  a  heavy  oil  or  syrup,  and  may  be 
considered  fused.  When  cool,  it  can  be  dissolved  in  pure  water,  diluted  to  any  extent,  and 
used  as  required. — ELBERT  ANDERSON. 

Boil  down  in  an  evaporating-dish  the  refractory  bath,  and,  when  nearly  dry,  it  will  froth 
up  very  much  ;  therefore  take  care  to  have  the  vessel  large  enough.  After  a  time  the  froth- 
ing will  cease,  and  the  contents  of  the  dish  will  settle  down  into  a  crystalline  mass.  Con- 
tinue the  heat,  taking  care  not  to  have  too  much,  or  the  silver  will  again  froth  up,  and  after 


MANIPULATORS'    MISERIES.  123 

166.  And  yet  the  means  of  rectifying  the  bath — of  saving  it  from 
being  utterly  cast  out  and  aside — are  not  yet  exhausted.  While  ingenuity 
has  been  greatly  exercised  to  find  a  substitute  for  it,  as  much  thought 
has  been  given  to  discover  means  of  saving  it  and  making  it  do  its  duty. 
There  are  those  whose  time  is  so  valuable  that  they  can  better  afford  to 
make  up  a  new  bath  than  spend  time  in  doctoring  an  old  one;  all  cannot, 
The  notes  which  follow  will  be  found  very  helpful  to  all  who  are  in  the 
midst  of  bath  troubles. 

a  time  become  perfectly  liquid.  It  is  now  fused,  but  the  operation  should  he  continued 
until  all  bubbles  have  disappeared.  The  dish  should  now  be  set  aside  to  cool.  When  cold, 
a  gray  cake,  not  unlike  toffee,  will  be  formed  at  the  bottom  of  the  dish.  The  fused  silver 
should  be  dissolved  in  distilled  water,  but  it  will  be  quite  a  work  of  time,  for  the  cake  will 
be  found  as  hard  as  a  stone,  and  very  insoluble.  When  in  solution,  sufficient  water  should 
be  added  to  make  forty  grains  per  ounce.  On  trying  a  plate  after  the  addition  of  a  drop  <>f 
dilute  nitric  acid,  the  result  will  be  quite  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  that  obtained  in  a  bath 
of  new  silver. — VALENTINE  BLANCHARD. 

Put  the  solution  to  be  clarified  into  a  porcelain  dish  over  a  slow  fire  or  a  Bunsen  burner, 
and,  when  boiling,  drop  by  intervals  into  it  pieces  of  caustic  potash,  stirring  all  the  time 
with  a  glass  rod.  Continue  this  operation  until  the  solution  ceases  to  precipitate  in  the 
form  of  a  brown-black  powder,  which  is  an  oxide  of  silver.  In  order  to  be  certain  that  the 
reaction  is  terminated,  take  a  few  drops  of  the  solution  and  put  it  into  a  glass  with  a  little 
distilled  water;  in  adding  a  small  quantity  of  hydrochloric  acid,  if  the  solution  remains 
clear,  the  operation  has  been  well  conducted;  if  it  turns  of  a  milky  appearance,  more  potash 
is  required.  The  oxide  of  silver  obtained  must  be  well  washed  ;  it  can  then  be  dissolved  in 
nitric  acid,  in  order  to  form  pure  nitrate  of  silver. — PROF.  E.  STEBBING. 

166.  I  will  now  describe  my  process  of  treating  an  old  bath,  by  which  it  may  be  made  not 
as  <:good  as  new,"  but  better;  that  is,  as  good  as  old.  First.  Filter  the  old  bath  into  a 
bottle.  Add  silver,  if  necessary,  until  it  is  forty  grains  strong.  Second.  Add  an  excess 
of  cyanide  of  potassium  (about  one  grain  to  each  ounce  of  silver  nitrate  is  sufficient) ;  shake 
thoroughly  until  no  more  cyanide  of  silver  will  dissolve;  let  settle  ;  decant  the  clear  liquid, 
and  filter  the  residue.  Third.  Add  three  fluid  drachms  of  No.  8  acetic  acid  to  each  quart 
of  solution.  Fourth.  Neutralize  with  bicarbonate  of  soda,  and  set  in  the  sun  until  it  settles 
clear.  Filter.  Fifth.  Add  pure  nitric  acid,  beginning  with  one-half  fluid  drachm  to  the 
gallon,  until  all  tendency  to  fog  is  removed.  When  more  bath  is  needed,  proceed  in  the 
same  manner  with  the  new,  after  having  dissolved  the  silver  and  iodized  it  as  usual ;  add 
the  new  to  the  old,  and  your  experience  will  be  different  from  mine  if  you  do  not  find  it 
better  than  a  new  bath. 

The  composition  of  this  bath  is  peculiar.  The  addition  of  the  cyanide  alone  causes  mat 
silver  stains  in  abundance  ;  then,  after  adding  the  acetic  acid,  the  most  intense  fogging  will 
follow.  The  next  step  is  also  remarkable;  for,  in  neutralizing  the  acetic  acid,  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  acetate  of  soda  is  introduced,  the  usual  result  of  which  would  be  precipitation 
of  acetate  of  silver.  Instead  of  this,  a  double  salt  is  probably  formed,  more  soluble  than 
acetate  of  silver.  Finally,  the  addition  of  nitric  acid  liberates  a  portion  of  acetic  acid,  and 
forms  nitrate  of  soda. 


124  WILSON'S    PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

167.  As  has  been  hinted  already,  the  abuse  of  the  bath  solution  is 
oftenest  the  cause  of  its  refusal  to  do  its  duty.  It  should  not  be  over- 
worked. It  should  be  kept  at  a  proper  degree  of  warmth  in  winter  and 
of  coolness  in  summer.  All  the  other  chemical  solutions  should  be  made 
to  work  in  harmony  with  it,  These  things  being  properly  attended  to, 
there  should  be  no  unusual  trouble  with  it. 

The  developer  which  I  use  with  this  bath,  and  recommend,  is  composed  as  follows  : 
Protosulphate  of  Iron,    .........       4  ounces. 

Acetic  Acid,  No.  8,          .........     10  fl.  ounces. 

Alcohol, ............       4         " 

Water, 2  quarts. 

W.  H.  SHERMAN. 

When  the  bath  yields  dull  negatives  without  vigor,  or  fogged  pictures,  it  is  usual  to  render 
the  solution  alkaline  by  the  addition  of  carbonate  of  soda  until  a  permanent  precipitate  is 
formed,  and  then  to  expose  it  for  several  days  in  the  sun,  to  filter  it,  and  finally  to  add  a  few 
drops  of  nitric  acid  to  bring  about  a  slightly  acid  reaction.  Thus  doctored,  the  bath  usually 
becomes  good  ;  but  in  winter,  when  there  is  no  sun,  the  bath  sometimes  freezes  externally, 
and  several  days  are  necessary  before  it  is  again  in  good  order. 

The  method  I  am  about  to  indicate  is  not  only  very  rapid  and  very  effective  in  removing 
the  iodide  of  silver,  but  likewise  puts  the  bath  into  such  order  that  it  is  capable  of  produc- 
ing negatives  as  clear  and  brilliant  and  free  from  fog  as  a  new  bath  in  good  condition. 
Two  solutions  are  prepared  as  follows : 

A. — Citric  Acid,     ...........  10  grammes. 

Distilled  Water, 100           " 

B. — Caustic  Soda,           ..........  10  grammes. 

Distilled  Water 100           " 

For  each  litre  of  silver  solution  to  be  corrected,  two  cubic  centimetres  of  solution  A  are 
added,  and  the  bath  well  agitated  to  disperse  the  citric  acid  through  the  liquid.  Five  cubic 
centimetres  of  solution  B  are  next  put  in,  the  liquid  being  again  shaken,  and  there  becomes 
formed  a  brown  precipitate  of  oxide  of  silver,  which  partially,  or  even  entirely,  disappears 
if  the  bath  happened  to  be  in  an  acid  condition  prior  to  the  addition  of  the  citric  acid.  A 
further  quantity  of  five  cubic  centimetres  of  solution  B  is  added,  and  if,  after  energetic 
agitation,  no  more  of  the  brown  precipitate  disappears,  no  further  quantity  of  the  solution 
should  be  added. 

The  bath  is  now  poured  into  a  glass  bulb  without  being  filtered,  and  heated  under  a  spirit- 
lamp  until  it  boils.  The  solution  will  by  this  means  become  perfectly  black  by  the  precipi- 
tation of  the  organic  matter,  which,  as  we  know,  was  the  cause  of  the  plates  becoming  fogged. 
The  boiling  should  not,  however,  last  for  more  than  a  minute,  after  which  the  solution  is 
allowed  to  cool. — WM.  ENGLAND. 

167.  Never  work  a  bath  after  it  has  become  necessary  to  add  alcohol  to  the  developer  to 
avoid  "  crawling,"  but  dump  it  into  an  evaporating-dish  and  boil  the  alcohol  out  of  it.  Let 
it  get  cold,  and  reduce  to  forty  grains  strength  ;  add  enough  new  solution  to  renew  the 
original  quantity,  and  the  bath  will  not  be  over-iodized,  and  will  work  splendidly  again 
without  any  sunning,  unless  it  was  also  overcharged  with  organic  matter.  In  that  case  th<> 


MANIPULATORY    MISERIES.  125 

168.  A  method  of  testing  the  strength  of  a  bath  has  already  been  given. 
This  for  the  photographer  who  really  has  some  conscience  and  a  little 
feeling  for  his  stock-dealer.  For  those  who  have  not,  the  following  note  is 
given  to  show  about  how  much  can  be  honestly  expected  from  a  given  nitrate 

boiling  should  have  been  continued  until  only  a  few  ounces  of  solution  remained,  and  suffi- 
cient oxide  of  silver  (AgO)  added  to  take  up  all  the  free  acid,  and  proceed  as  before  to  reduce 
to  forty  grains,  and  increase  in  quantity  ;  then  filter  and  sun  until  perfectly  clear  ;  filter 
again,  and  add  fresh  nitric  acid  as  to  a  new  bath. — F.  M.  SPENCER. 

The  cold  affects  the  chemicals  by  rendering  them  torpid,  whereby  they  lose  one-half  of 
their  power  and  energy.  The  collodion  sets  slowly,  and  the  resulting  plate,  instead  of  coming 
out  of  the  bath  rich  and  creamy,  will  be  thin  and  transparent,  of  a  bluish  color;  the  de- 
veloper works  slowly,  depositing  nearly  ah  the  silver  upon  the  whites,  thereby  giving  too 
great  a  density  to  the  negative,  and  with  difficulty  bringing  out  the  details.  The  result  is 
an  imperfect  negative,  with  very  little  chance  of  doing  better  next  time.  Heat  increases 
chemical  action  and  cold  decreases  it.  Cold  renders  long  exposures  necessary,  and  produces 
hard  negatives  without  detail.  On  the  other  hand,  too  high  a  temperature  will  give  flat 
negatives  without  contrast,  with  a  tendency  to  spontaneous  reduction,  otherwise  called  fog. 
"We  must,  then,  to  be  successful,  steer  clear  of  both  extremes.  If  possible,  the  temperature 
of  the  rooms  should  never  be  below  55°  nor  above  70°  Fahrenheit.  This  temperature 
should  be  maintained  as  near  as  possible,  night  and  day,  by  the  aid  of  artificial  heat.  More 
particularly  is  it  necessary  at  night,  because,  when  the  heat  is  allowed  to  go  down  after  the 
work  of  the  day  is  done,  the  chemicals  are  all  chilled  by  morning,  and,  although  it  may  take 
but  a  few  minutes  for  the  room  to  get  comfortable,  it  will  take  many  hours  for  the  heat  to 
penetrate  through  the  bath  and  solution,  and  just  as  they  begin  to  get  in  tolerable  work- 
ing order  it  is  time  to  close  business,  and  you  go  again  in  the  morning  to  find  the  same 
trouble. 

Another  strong  reason  for  an  even  temperature  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact,  that  a  sudden 
rise  of  temperature  in  a  cold  room  condenses  moisture  upon  your  negative  glass  and  the 
lenses  of  your  instrument,  upon  the  same  principle  that  it  does  upon  a  pitcher  of  ice- water 
when  carried  into  a  warm  room.  This  moisture  will  cause  the  film  to  slip  off  your  plates 
during  the  manipulations,  unless  they  are  warmed  sufiiciently  to  drive  it  off  before  coat- 
ing.— GEORGE  H.  FENNEMORE. 

Years  ago  I  used  to  carry  ice  for  miles,  and  have  my  bath  stand  in  a  box  of  ice,  and  im- 
agined it  was  a  great  thing  ;  but  in  many  places  it  could  not  be  got,  so  I  had  to  look  for 
other  means  of  working  in  extremely  hot  days.  First  of  all,  I  learned  to  keep  my  best  bath 
for  hot  days — I  always  carry  two — and,  by  judicious  use  of  acid  in  my  developer  (putting  it 
in  in  addition  to  what  is  already  in  the  developer,  after  putting  the  developer  in  my  de- 
veloping-cup,  altering  the  charge  of  acid  as  I  see  I  need  from  one  exposure  to  another),  I 
get  along.  Next  be  careful  and  not  over-expose,  for  this  is  one  great  source  of  failure.  In 
hot  weather  a  plate  but  slightly  over-exposed  has  lost  its  snap,  and  cannot  be  relied  on  for  a 
brilliant  negative. — B.  W.  KILBURN. 

168.  A  12  x  10  glass  bath,  holding  about  80  ounces  of  new  solution  35  grains  to  the  ounce, 
and  made  with  distilled  water  and  three  drops  of  nitric  acid,  did  213  plates  7Jx7J  inches, 
being  about  60  square  feet.  It  gave  up  suddenly,  needle-like  crystals  being  formed  all  over 
the  plate,  on  the  inside  of  the  bath,  and  on  the  dipper.  Before  this  point  was  reached,  the 


126  WILSON'S  PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

of  silver  solution,  and  how  much  more  may  not  be  expected  from  it.  And 
with  it  well  digested  yon  are  in  condition  to  investigate  further  troubles. 
169.  Collodion  is  liable  to  frequent  and  rapid  changes,  and  needs  to  be 
continually  modified  to  suit  the  condition  of  the  bath.  This  is  easily  done, 
however.  The  best  remedy  for  a  pale,  neutral  collodion  is  to  take 
from  the  stock-bottle  as  much  as  will  last  for  the  day,  and  add  to  it  a  little 
old  red  collodion  until  it  assumes  a  rich  orange  color ;  or  a  drop  or  two 
of  tincture  of  iodine  will  do  as  well.  Let  it  stand  a  few  minutes,  when 
a  great  improvement  will  be  found.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  positive 
picture  is  clear  and  brilliant,  and  the  negatives  are  foggy  that  are  made 
by  day,  the  trouble  undoubtedly  comes  from  light  penetrating  in  some 
place  where  it  ought  to  be  excluded;  the  only  remedy  for  which  is  to 
find  the  enemy,  put  him  out,  and  keep  him  out. 

plates  developed  very  weak,  and  there  was  difficulty  in  getting  the  developer  to  stay  on  the 
plate.  The  developer  was 

Saturated  Solution  of  Iron,     ........       4  ounces. 

Methylated  Spirit, 4        " 

Glacial  Acetic  Acid, 4       " 

Bottle  filled  up  with  Water, 80        " 

Now  that  nitrate  of  baryta  is  used  in  the  bath  (ten  or  twelve  drops  of  saturated  solution  in  a 
12  x  10  bath),  probably  more  plates  could  be  done ;  but  it  is  usual  to  discontinue  the  use  of  the 
bath  as  soon  as  it  is  found  difficult  to  keep  the  developer  on  the  plate.  Probably  about  170  or 
180  plates  may  be  done  before  this  happens.  A  bath  holding  80  ounces  of  solution  35  grains 
to  the  ounce,  when  it  was  discarded  as  worn  out,  was  found  by  the  argentometer  to  register 
16  grains  ;  it  had  also  diminished  in  quantity  nearly  one-third.  The  number  of  plates  sensi- 
tized in  it  was  about  180  7J  x  7£. 

Quantity  of  Silver  at  first,      .......     2,800  grains. 

Quantity  in  the  Bath  left, 880      " 

Quantity  used, 1,920       " 

Practically  about  ten  grains  a  plate ;  about  two  cents'  worth  of  silver,  or  six  cents  a  square  foot. 
With  a  bath  made  of  new  silver  and  water,  the  plates  at  first  come  beautifully  bright;  but 
rapidly  a  surface  fog  accumulates,  which  gets  worse  and  worse  with  every  plate  that  is  put  in 
the  bath.  When  this  occurs,  the  bath  has  to  be  taken  out,  and  a  few  drops  of  a  saturated  solu- 
tion of  baryta  added,  and  stood  in  the  sun  for  a  day  or  two,  when  a  deposit  takes  place,  and, 
after  filtering,  the  surface  fog  never  appears  again.  In  the  former  case,  when  the  surface 
fog  is  rubbed  off,  the  film  under  is  bright,  like  bare  glass,  whilst  in  the  latter,  after  the  addi- 
tion of  the  baryta,  the  film  is  granular,  looking  something  like  very  fine  ground-glass.  The 
glass  plates  are  all  alburnenized  before  coating  with  collodion  ;  probably  this  has  something 
to  do  with  it.  In  every  case  the  development  is  pushed  to  the  utmost.  The  fog  here  spoken 
of  would  not  be  noticeable  in  a  negative,  nor  the  granular  film  ;  but  in  the  case  or  trans- 
parencies for  the  lantern,  where  absolutely  bare  glass  is  needed,  it  is  very  obvious. 


MANIPULATORY    MISERIES.  127 

170.  And  not  only  does  the  collodion  sometimes  cause  very  annoying 
troubles,  but  it  is  itself  subject  to  annoyances  which  either  impair  its 
value  as  a  helper  or  render  its  work  useless  altogether.  If  it  is  suffered 
to  evaporate,  it  becomes  thick  and  unmanageable.  Should  it  be  kept 
too  long  before  use,  it  becomes  red,  thick,  and  works  with  too  great  in- 
tensity. When  it  is  salted  in  a  certain  way,  it  may  not  be  used  with  good 
results  until  it  is  several  days  old.  If  diluted,  or  impure  chemicals  are 
used  in  its  mixture,  it  will  rebel;  and  if  the  bath  is  not  in  harmonious 
condition  there  is  no  end  to  the  troubles  which  will  occur. 

Adding  more  nitric  acid  to  the  bath  did  not  diminish  the  surface  fog  nor  the  granularity 
of  the  film.  Adding  iodine  to  the  collodion  did  tend  to  clear  the  film,  particularly  the  granu- 
larity, but  did  not  remove  it  unless  an  enormous  quantity  was  added,  making  the  collodion 
quite  dark,  in  which  case  the  exposure  was  very  much  lengthened,  and  the  resulting  image 
very  weak.  The  best  result  was  obtained  with  the  collodion  a  dark  sherry  color. — R.  GILLO. 

170.  I  have  suffered  great  annoyance  from  collodion  admirable  in  every  way  except  being 
too  thick,  thus  making  it  impossible  to  flow  a  plate  evenly.  The  trouble  was  intolerable 
when  I  had  occasion  to  make  a  picture  with  a  delicate  sky.  I  tried  to  remedy  the  evil  by 
reducing  the  collodion  with  alcohol,  but  it  was  always  at  the  expense  of  sensitiveness,  making 
the  exposure  necessarily  longer  and  the  resulting  negative  very  inferior.  I  then  tried  equal 
parts  of  alcohol  and  ether.  I  found  that  better  than  the  other,  but  by  no  means  satisfactory. 

This  state  of  affairs  had  cost  me  a  good  many  pounds  of  collodion,  perfect  in  every  respect 
except  in  being  too  thick,  when  the  query  arose  in  my  mind,  "What  does  a  perfectly 
balanced  collodion  lose  first,  when  it  begins  to  deteriorate?"  "Why,  ether,  of  course," 
answered  reason;  "and  it  wants  ether  to  replace  that  which  is  lost."  I  tried  this  with 
perfect  success,  and  now  find  a  bottle  of  good  ether  one  of  the  every-day  necessities  in  my 
practice. 

I  mention  this  because  I  have  been  much  tried  and  could  find  no  remedy.  I  have  seen 
alcohol  alone  recommended,  and  equal  parts  of  ether  and  alcohol,  too ;  but  my  experience  is 
that  a  perfectly-balanced  collodion,  when  it  is  new,  wants  ether  when  it  gets  thick.  Add 
from  day  to  day  as  you  see  it.  It  is  a  perfect  cure. — B.  W.  KILBURN. 

STRUCTURAL  CRAPY  LINES. — Marks  from  glutinosity  will  sometimes  occur  when  using 
cadmium  as  an  iodizing  solution.  A  sample  of  plain  collodion  which  gives  these  markings 
will  probably  be  free  from  them  after  keeping  for  a  few  months  without  any  further  treat- 
ment. Structural  lines  on  the  film  also  frequently  depend  upon  the  plate  not  being  properly 
rocked  whilst  pouring  off  the  collodion.  Some  operators  dilute  glutinous  collodion  with 
ether,  but  in  doing  so  there  is  always  danger  of  precipitating  the  iodide  of  potassium,  and, 
if  the  pyroxylin  be  of  that  kind  which  sets  very  rapidly,  the  use  of  too  large  a  proportion 
of  ether  will  produce  markings  of  a  different  kind. — T.  FREDERICK  HARDWICH. 

A  source  of  great  waste  among  photographers  is  that  of  old  collodion.  It  can  be  reno- 
vated and  used  again  by  the  following  process  :  Pour  off  the  collodion  from  the  sediment, 
and  add  subchloride  of  mercury  (Hg2Cl) — calomel — until  a  greenish  color  is  assumed  when 
shaken.  Then  allow  it  to  settle,  and  add  more  calomel  until,  by  shaking  again,  the  collodion 
appears  of  a  canary-yellow  color.  Now,  if  it  is  very  old  and  thin,  either  add  more  cotton 
to  it  or  mix  it  with  your  new  collodion.  When  thus  treated,  it  will  never  turn  red  again. 


128  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

171.  Semi-zigzag  lines,  running  from  the  edge  of  the  plate  that  first 
enters  the  bath  solution  upwards,  attract  us  next.  These  are  also  caused 
by  a  want  of  harmony  between  the  bath  and  the  collodion,  but  for  a  rea- 
son different  from  that  which  creates  fog.  If  the  collodion  be  too  highly 
iodized  to  suit  the  strength  of  the  bath,  then  these  lines  or  marks  will 
occur.  The  remedy  is  to  test  the  bath,  and  add  silver  until  it  reaches  the 
strength  of  a  newly-made  bath.  Should  the  lines,  after  trial  of  a  plate, 
still  appear,  then  add  plain  collodion  to  the  iodized,  a  little  at  a  time, 
until  the  lines  are  no  longer  seen  on  trial  of  further  plates. 

If  it  should  not  work  as  sensitive  as  new  collodion,  add  one  drop  of  aqua  ammonia  to  each 
ounce  of  collodion  as  you  use  it. — J.  K.  CLEMONS. 

You  will  find  in  practice  that  a  soft,  spongy  collodion  will  always  he  highly  sensitive,  for 
the  reason  that  its  mechanical  constitution  is  such  that  the  molecules  of  silver  move  more 
freely  within  and  throughout  it, — that  is  to  say,  with  less  friction, — and  rearrange  themselvesy 
by  the  action  of  the  light,  more  readily  than  they  do  when  enveloped  in  a  tough  or  hard 
collodion.  No  doubt,  a  part  of  the  success  of  the  "  acid  bath  "  is  due  to  these  facts,  for  the 
great  quantity  of  acid  tends  to  make  the  collodion  film  peculiarly  tender,  velvety,  and  soft, 
and  thus  affords  the  most  delicate  gradations  of  light  and  shade.  I  will  give  the  formulae  for 
collodion  and  bath,  such  as  I  am  now  working,  and  will  only  say  that,  like  all  other  formulae, 
they  must  be  used  with  judgment.  Chemicals,  particularly  soluble  cottons,  are  not  always 
uniform,  and  ihe  formulae  must  be  modified  to  suit  varying  conditions.  For  general  work,  I 
use  collodion  made  as  follows  : 

Alcohol,  ............9  ounces. 

Ether, 6       " 

Soluble  Cotton, 108  grains. 

Iodide  of  Ammonium,    .........       18       " 

Iodide  of  Cadmium,        .........       18       " 

Chloride  of  Calcium, 9       " 

The  nitrate  of  silver  bath  I  make  of  nitrate  of  silver,  twenty  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water, 
and  for  every  two  quarts  of  the  solution  add  half  an  ounce  of  C.  P.  nitric  acid.  The  amount 
of  acid  used  must  depend  upon  circumstances  ;  you  will  probably  require  more  acid.  I  often 
use  as  much  as  two  ounces,  or  more,  with  success,  in  two  quarts  of  solution.  To  develop,  I 
use  from  fifteen  to  twenty  grains  of  protosulphate  of  iron  to  the  ounce  of  water,  with  enough 
acetic  acid  to  cause  it  to  flow  smoothly. — J.  "W.  BLACK. 

171.  Foggy  lines  or  streaks,  in  the  direction  of  the  dip,  on  negatives  often  appear  after 
freeing  the  nitrate  bath  from  organic  matter,  or  strengthening  with  new  silver.  I  am  not 
aware  that  any  remedy  has  been  proposed  for  this  trouble,  except  moving  the  plate 
horizontally  in  the  bath  for  the  first  thirty  seconds  after  immersion,  which  had  scarcely  any 
appreciable  effect  in  my  case.  I  was  induced  to  give  this  some  consideration  through  having 
about  one  hundred  and  sixty  ounces  in  this  condition,  although  free  from  organic  matter, 
and  sufficiently  acid.  My  other  bath  working  well  with  the  same  collodion,  I  inferred  that 
the  bath,  having  been  continually  strengthened  with  a  stronger  uniodized  silver  solution  for 
a  long  time,  had  not  the  same  amount  of  iodide  in  it  when  it  was  still  further  strengthened 


MANIPULATORY    MISERIES.  129 

172.  Another  defect  is  shown  in  the  form  of  streaks  and  lines,  starting 
at  the  lower  edge  of  the  plate  and  extending  upward  in  the  form  of  a 
triangle.     These  come  from  a  scum  to  be  found  floating  on  the  surface 
of  the  silver  solution.     If  the  dark-room  is  kept  clean,  the  hath  covered 
when  not  in  use,  and  the  habit  followed  of  filtering  the  solution  every 
day  or  two,  this  defect  will  rarely  annoy  you. 

173.  Dark,  opaque  lines  running  down  from  the  top  of  the  plate  are 
also  frequently  met  with.      Unequal  or  irregular  development  is  their 
usual  cause.     If,  for  any  reason,  a  greater  amount  of  silver  is  deposited 
upon  one  part  of  the  plate  than  the  other,  these  marks  will  occur.     After 

with  new  silver  and  cleared  from  organic  matter.  I  therefore  added  a  few  grains  of  iodide 
of  potassium,  and  filtered,  letting  it  stand  all  night.  On  trying  it  the  following  day  the 
lines  had  entirely  disappeared,  the  negative  having  all  the  beautiful  bloom  of  one  taken  in  a 
new  bath.  Before  the  iodide  was  added,  the  negatives  were  thin  and  weak,  without  body. — 
HENRY  GREGSON. 

The  bath  will  never  "streak  "  the  plates  if  the  latter  are  moved  about  in  the  solution  as  soon 
as  dipped,  and  kept  in  motion  until  smoothly  coated.  This  is  necessary  more  particularly 
when  the  bath  is  charged  with  ether  and  alcohol.  The  alcohol  mixes  with  the  solution,  but 
the  ether  rises  to  the  surface  and  sometimes  causes  scum. — ELBERT  ANDERSON. 

172.  A  very  common  and  often  unsuspected  source  of  streaks  is  the  presence  of  scum  on 
the  surface  of  the  bath,  which,  if  the  room  is  very  dark,  is  not  observed. 

There  are  other  causes  of  streaks  and  stains,  but  this  is  the  chief.  We  mention  it  that 
the  inexperienced  photographer  may  see  the  necessity  of  carefully  overhauling  the  whole 
of  his  operations  when  he  meets  with  any  of  these  difficulties,  and  not  fancy  that,  by  making 
his  dark-room  so  dark  that  he  cannot  move  in  it  without  upsetting  something,  he  is  forth- 
with to  rid  himself  of  further  trouble  in  this  respect. 

Nevertheless,  too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  on  the  importance  of  excluding  all  actinic 
light  from  the  dark-room.  The  more  perfect  the  working  condition  of  the  chemicals,  the 
more  dangerous  will  necessarily  be  every  stray  beam  of  white  light. — OLD  ARGENTUM. 

173.  A  network  appearance  on  the  film  after  developing,  when  universal,  and  accompanied 
by  rottenness  of  film,  often  depends  upon  the  use  of  collodion  containing  water.     Or,  if  not 
due  to  this  cause,  the  plate  may  have  been  immersed  too  quickly  in  the  bath,  and  the  soluble 
pyroxylin  partially  precipitated.     This  is  very  likely  to  happen  when  using  collodion  con- 
taining a  sufficient  excess  of  alcohol  to  interfere  with  the  setting  properties  of  the  pyroxy- 
lin, especially  in  cold  or  damp  weather. — T.  FREDERICK  HARDWICH. 

Surface  stains  are  a  botheration  wherever  occurring.  One  great  cause  is  too  long  a  time 
between  the  sensitizing  of  the  plate  and  its  exposure  to  the  light ;  but  there  are  many  others. 
The  way  to  prevent  them  is  what  we  want  to  know  ;  the  cause  we  need  not  care  for,  though 
that  often  rules  the  cure.  The  shields  should  always  be  kept  clean,  and  a  good  plan  is  to  in- 
terpose strips  of  blotting-paper  between  them  and  the  plate.  All  varnishes  which  have  any 
action  whatever  on  nitrate  of  silver  should  be  avoided.  In  case  of  long  exposure  the  dark- 
elide  should  be  wrapped  in  a  thick,  damp  cloth,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  when  the  plates  must 
be  long  kept,  use  a  new  nitrate  bath,  or  one  nearly  new.  Very  often  these  stains  can  be 
9 


130  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

the  developer  is  flowed  over  the  plate  and  the  image  begins  to  appear,  if 
the  plate  is  held  vertically,  the  developing  solution  will,  left  to  its  own 
action,  form  in  irregular  lines,  and  carry  in  its  train  more  silver  upon 
some  parts  than  others,  thus  causing  the  uneven  development  spoken  of, 
and  the  consequent  lines  or  streaks. 

174.  The  hest  rule  for  development,  if  the  exposure  has  been  right,  is 
to  proceed  with  it  until  the  image  fully  appears,  appearing  slowly.     If 
the  image  flashes  out  immediately  upon  the  application  of  the  developer, 
thus  indicating  over-exposure,  watch  closely  until  all  the  details  are  out, 
then  quickly  stop  further  action  by  holding  the  plate  under  the  tap. 

175.  Lines  of  a  still  different  character  often  appear.     They  form  in 
irregular  squares  resembling  the  lines  upon  the  shell  of  some  quaint  old 

overcome  by  using  in  each  ounce  of  collodion,  bromo-iodized  with  ammonium  accordingly. 
a  grain  of  chloride  of  calcium  dissolved  in  a  few  drops  of  strong  alcohol  ;  or  dissolve  twenty- 
five  grains  of  iodide  of  magnesium  in  two  ounces  of  strong  alcohol,  and  add  one  drachm  of 
this  to  each  three  ounces  of  the  collodion. — GEORGE  W.  WALLACE. 

174.  In  developing,  see  that  the  developer  is  filtered  clear,  and  flow  it  over  the  plate  in 
one  even  wave.  Do  not  have  it  too  strong,  or  semicircular  lines  radiating  from  the  corner 
will  be  the  result ;  neither  must  you  have  it  too  weak,  or  hardness  and  want  of  half-tone 
will  be  the  result.  From  twenty  to  thirty  grains  to  the  ounce  will  be  about  right.  Have 
all  your  developing  clean,  and  wash  both  your  negative  and  your  hands  well  after  each 
operation.  Finally,  fix  your  negative,  wash  it  well,  and  dry  it.  Lastly,  a  few  words  on  the 
apparatus.  If  it  is  not  in  good  condition,  all  the  trouble  spent  on  chemicals  is  useless.  See, 
then,  that  the  camera  is  in  the  best  condition  to  assist  the  chemicals  to  produce  the  best  re- 
sults, i.  e.,  see  that  there  are  no  chinks  or  cracks  in  the  woodwork,  nor  holes  in  the  corners 
of  the  bellows,  by  which  white  light  is  admitted ;  see  that  the  lenses  are  clean  and  covered 
with  a  hood  to  keep  out  reflected  light.  Keep  it  in  the  dark  as  much  as  possible  when 
operating.  Having  accomplished  the  above  necessary  conditions,  go  to  work,  pose  and  light 
your  sitter  artistically,  and  I  think  you  will  soon  go  home  at  night  with  a  lighter  heart  and 
heavier  pocket. — GEORGE  H.  FENNEMORE. 

175  The  first  signs  of  failure  of  the  negative  bath  with  me  are  generally  a  refusal  on  the 
part  of  the  silver  solution  to  lie  perfectly  smooth  on  the  plate  after  the  latter  is  sufficiently 
sensitized. 

I  do  not  mean  that  the  plate  does  not  coat  smoothly,  but,  after  it  is  all  ready  and  with- 
drawn from  the  bath,  the  silver  solution  runs  down  in  an  irregular  manner  (lumpy,  I  call 
it),  and  the  plate  takes  rather  longer  to  sensitize  than  usual.  Cause  :  Too  much  ether  and 
alcohol  in  the  bath.  Remove  the  bath  and  test  for  strength.  (I  frequently  run  mine  down 
as  low  as  twenty-five  to  thirty  grains,  and  produce  as  good  effects  as  at  forty.)  Boil  about 
one-third  its  volume  away,  let  cool,  add  water  enough  to  make  from  thirty-five  to  forty 
grains,  filter,  and  you  are  all  right.  One  hundred  more  plates  may  now  be  dipped  before 
the  next  signs  of  failure  present  themselves. — ELBERT  ANDERSON. 

Now,  in  order  to  get  delicacy  in  our  picture,  reduce  the  strength  of  iron  on  the  plate  by 
adding  water,  and  an  entire  change  takes  place;  the  silver  deposits  finely  over  the  entire 


MANIPULATORY    MISERIES.  131 

tortoise.  These  arise  from  ether  and  alcohol  heing  present  in  the  bath, 
which  cause  the  nitrate  of  silver  solution  to  run  into  lines  after  taking  the 
plate  from  the  hath,  and  also  prevent  the  developer  from  flowing  smoothly 
over  it.  The  remedy  is,  to  boil  the  bath  down  about  one-half,  and  add 
fresh  rain-water  or  distilled  water  until  it  is  the  proper  strength  again, 
after  which  filter  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 

176.  The  developer  causes  other  troubles.  Occasionally  it  will  be  seen 
on  a  negative  that,  at  the  lower  right-hand  corner,  there  is  a  large  semi- 
transparent  spot,  and  from  it  lines  radiate  in  a  curve  all  over  the  plate. 

exposure,  softening  the  strong  outlines  in  contrast,  and  giving  a  roundness  and  delicacy  not 
possible  with  one  strength  of  iron. — S.  P.  WELLS. 

Try  my  method  of  pneumatic  development.  By  its  use  the  details  are  developed  quicker 
and  with  more  clearness,  and  designs  produced  whereby  lights  and  shades  are  brought  out. 
This  method  consists  in  the  following  operation:  Take  a  small  india-rubber  ball,  with  tube 
attached  to  it,  and  direct  a  current  of  air  on  to  the  deep  shadows.  By  this  operation  the 
collodion  film  becomes  more  sensitive,  and  the  development  goes  on  more  quickly,  whereby 
greater  precision  and  distinctness  are  given  to  the  details. — ERNEST  KREUGER. 

Keep  a  saturated  solution  of  iron  on  hand.  For  use,  reduce  to  fifteen  grains,  by  hydrom- 
eter, the  quantity  required  for  a  day's  use;  acetic  acid,  one  ounce  to  twelve  ounces  of  the 
fifteen-grain  solution.  If  my  bath  is  new,  I  don't  use  any  alcohol  unless  it  gives  too  strong  a 
contrast.  By  adding  one-half  ounce  or  more  of  alcohol  it  will  work  softer.  I  think  the 
adding  of  acetic  acid  just  before  you  use  it,  works  better  and  quicker;  but  if  the  negatives 
lack  vigor,  I  think  that  an  older  developer  will  work  better  ;  also  for  copying.  So  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  have  some  old  on  hand.  Sometimes  the  best  effects  can  be  had  by  mixing  old 
and  new.  I  sometimes  add  a  few  drops  of  acetic  acid  to  the  developer  just  before  I  use  it; 
I  find  that  it  has  more  to  do  with  results  than  many  are  aware  of.  I  have  tried  a  great 
many  articles  in  connection  with  the  iron,  but  I  believe  that  one  can  work  more  sure  and 
get  as  good  results  without  any  of  them. — A.  "W.  KIMBALL. 

176.  The  developer  flows  in  a  greasy  manner:  1.  From  the  bath  being  old,  and  con- 
taining much  ether  and  alcohol.  In  this  case  a  purely  aqueous  liquid  is  not  capable  of 
flowing  at  once  over  the  film,  and  a  portion  of  spirit  must  be  added  to  the  developer.  2. 
From  use  of  too  much  spirit  in  the  developer  when  the  bath  is  newly  made,  and  nearly  free 
from  alcohol ;  if  the  surface  liquid  of  the  film  is  entirely  aqueous  in  character,  the  developer 
should  be  aqueous  also.  The  developer  refuses  to  wet  certain  parts  of  the  film,  and  will  not 
flow  up  to  the  edge.  A  gelatinous  collodion  often  repels  the  developer,  and  especially  so  with 
a  newly-prepared  bath.  Old  baths,  containing  ether  and  alcohol,  render  the  surface  of  the 
film  less  gelatinous,  and  remedy  the  defect.  The  plate  should  not  be  dipped  too  quickly,  or 
the  difficulty  will  be  increased.  Acetic  acid  and  spirit,  added  to  the  developer,  are  service- 
able. The  stronger  the  alcohol  in  the  collodion  the  more  marked  the  defect.  In  hot  weather, 
when  large  plates  become  partially  dry  and  repel  the  developer,  redip  them  in  the  bath,  or 
use  a  developing  solution  greatly  diluted  with  water. — T.  FREDERICK  HARDWICH. 

Of  developers  I  cannot  say  very  much,  except  to  strongly  recommend  adding  glycerin 
instead  of  alcohol,  or  using  half  ale  »hol  and  glycerin  when  the  bath  is  greasy.  Glvcerin 
gives  such  a  command  over  the  development,  allows  for  such  deliberation  of  treatment,  and 


132  WILSON'S    THOTOGRAPHICS. 

That  indicates  that  the  developer  lias  heen  too  strong,  and  without  suffi- 
cient acid  in  it;  that  it  was  also  carelessly  applied, — instead -of  flowing  it 
over  evenly,  it  was  thrown  over  with  a  dash,  causing  the  spot  in  question. 
The  danger  of  spoiling  your  negative  is  not  over  when  exposure  is  made. 
Many  troubles  arise  with  the  developer.  When  the  iron  is  too  strong,  and 
without  sufficient  acid  to  restrain  its  action,  it  causes  an  unequal  reduction 
of  the  silver,  which  produces  the  ugly  markings  just  now  mentioned. 

177.  And  there  are  still  more  kinds  of  defects  constantly  occurring  to 
mar  the  peace  of  the  working  photographer.  They  are,  as  a  general 
thing,  however,  resultant  from  heedless  manipulation,  and  may  he  avoided 
if  the  proper  care  be  taken,  and  your  purchases  are  made  from  a  reli- 
able dealer,  whose  prices  are  fair  enough  to  keep  him  from  the  practice 
of  adulteration.  "While  chemicals  are  exceedingly  obstreperous,  they  can 
be  kept  in  comparatively  good  order  if  they  are  given  the  attention  laid 
down  in  the  rules.  Knowing  the  causes  of  defects,  then,  it  should  not 
be  difficult  to  avoid  them. 

has  all  the  exquisite  flowing  qualities  of  gelatin,  without  the  retarding  effect  on  exposure, 
that  once  an  operator  gets  used  to  its  easy  manipulation  he  will  never  go  back  to  the  simply 
alcoholic  developer.  For  indoor  working,  I  use  fifteen  grains  of  protosulphate  of  iron  to 
one  ounce  of  water,  and  for  outdoor  work  from  five  to  ten  grains.  Acetic  acid  is  added  ac- 
cording to  time  of  year,  kind  of  subject,  and  quality  of  light. — ALFRED  HUGHES. 

177.  OILY  LINES. — 1.  Lifting  the  plate  out  of  the  nitrate  bath  before  it  has  been 
immersed  sufficiently  long  to  be  thoroughly  wetted,  or  before  the  ether  upon  the  surface  has 
been  washed  away.  2.  Redipping  the  plate  in  the  nitrate  bath  after  exposure  in  the  camera, 
and  pouring  on  the  developer  immediately  ;  if  a  few  seconds  be  not  allowed  for  the  purpose 
of  draining  off  the  excess  of  nitrate,  the  pyrogallic  acid  will  not  readily  flow  over  the  film. 
3.  From  too  small  a  quantity  of  fluid  having  been  employed  to  develop  the  image.  In  this 
case,  the  whole  plate  not  being  thoroughly  covered  during  development,  the  action  does  not 
proceed  with  regularity.  4.  Opaque,  oily,  diagonal  markings  are  very  commonly  produced 
by  pouring  off  the  developer,  and  examining  the  plate  by  transmitted  light,  without  washing 
the  film  ;  the  solution  of  pyrogallic  acid  runs  into  lines  which  show  after  fixing.  5.  Ad- 
dition of  old  collodion  in  making  a  new  bath.  The  ether  mixes  with  the  bath  and  gives  a 
greasy  appearance  to  the  immersed  plates. 

TRANSPARENT  MARKS  LIKE  CURTAINS. — These  occur  at  the  edge  of  the  plate  which  is 
most  depending  in  the  camera,  and  are  produced  by  the  bath  solution  draining  down,  or 
sometimes  ascending  by  capillary  attraction,  from  the  corners  of  a  dirty  slide.  They  are 
most  common  with  a  gelatinous,  simply-iodized  collodion,  and  are  seen  in  cold  and  damp 
weather  more  than  in  hot  and  dry  weather.  To  obviate  their  occurrence,  allow  the  ether  to 
evaporate  from  the  film  before  dipping,  so  that  the  bath  solution  may  run  completely  off; 
or  turn  the  plate  round,  that  the  upper  and  dryer  part  may  be  below  ;  or  place  it  across  the 
dipper  so  as  to  bring  the  curtain  mark  to  the  side  of  the  picture,  where  it  will  be  less  visible 
— T.  FREDERICK  HARDWICH. 


MANIPULATOKY    MISEKIES.  133 

178.  A  generally  wretched  negative,  that  seems  to  possess  all  the  ills 
which  occur  in  negative-making  combined,  will  look  thus :  In  the  first 
place,  it  is  full  of  pinholes  and  large  streaky  patches  of  white  scum,  as  if 
somebody  had  poured  a  solution  of  chalk  and  water  on  it ;  secondly,  the 
film  is  thin,  and  the  image  harsh  and  without  detail ;  in  fact,  destitute  of 
a  single  good  quality.  First,  there  are  two  distinct  kinds  of  transparent 
spots  ;  one  kind  is  called  pinholes,  caused  by  a  large  excess  of  iodo-nitrate 
of  silver  in  the  bath,  and  the  other  kind  is  specks  of  irregular  shape,  such 
as  are  caused  by  dust,  sediment  in  the  collodion,  etc. ;  then  there  are  the 
large  white  patches,  spoken  of  above,  which  indicate  that  the  plate-holder 
is  very  dirty,  and  that,  the  plate  not  being  properly  drained,  the  silver  has 
run  down,  absorbed  the  deleterious  matter,  and  has  again  been  drawn  up 
by  capillary  attraction  and  settled  upon  the  plate,  adhering  to  it  with 
great  tenacity.  In  addition,  that  the  bath  is  full  of  ether  and  alcohol,  is 
shown  by  irregular  greasy  markings  which  are  all  over  the  plate;  finally, 
the  image  is  hard  and  chalky,  and  lacking  detail,  proving  that  the  col- 

178.  Pinholes  may  be  formed  in  five  ways  :  First,  dust;  Second,  unsettled  collodion  ;  Third, 
over-iodized  bath  j  Fourth,  too  strong  iron  solution  ;  Fifth,  over-iodized  hypo.  All  of  these 
have  a  different  and  distinct  appearance. 

1.  Pinholes  from  dust  are  irregular,  as  regards  size,  and  scattered  irregularly  over  the 
plate.  The  remedy  is  obvious.  2.  Pinholes  from  unsettled  collodion  are  very  numerous, 
and  regularly  scattered  over  the  entire  plate.  Upon  examining  them,  however,  with  a 
microscope,  they  will  be  found  to  have  little  tails  attached  to  them,  which  indicate  at  once 
the  source  from  which  they  arise.  3.  Pinholes  from  an  over-iodized  bath  are  very  numer- 
ous, scattered  evenly  over  the  plate,  are  sharp  crystals  without  tails,  and  leave  a  clear  spot 
on  the  glass  after  fixing.  4.  Pinholes  from  too  strong  iron  solution  are  caused  by  the  pre- 
cipitate of  oxide  of  iron ;  they  have  a  close  resemblance  to  those  of  an  over-iodized  bath. 
5.  When  the  hypo,  solution  has  dissolved  as  much  iodide  of  silver  as  possible,  it  will  be  satu- 
rated, and,  after  a  short  time,  will  deposit  fine  crystals  of  iodide  of  silver  on  the  plate.  In 
this  case,  however,  these  may  be  detected  by  there  being  no  signs  of  pinholes  until  after  fix- 
ing. If  there  should  be  any  doubt  as  to  whether  the  bath  is  near  a  point  of  saturation  with 
iodide  of  silver,  you  may  easily  determine  the  state  of  the  bath  by  the  following  experiment: 
Into  four  ounces  of  water  pour  gradually  four  ounces  of  bath  solution,  and  watch  narrowly 
the  time  when  the  precipitate  of  iodide  of  silver  takes  place.  If  you  can  add  nearly  the 
whole  amount  of  the  bath  solution  before  the  milky  precipitate  takes  place,  the  bath  is  far 
from  saturation  ;  but  should  this  precipitate  take  place  before  much  addition  of  the  bath 
solution,  continue  to  add  the  four  ounces  of  solution,  and  stir  the  mixture  thoroughly.  Next 
add  crystals  of  nitrate  of  silver  gradually,  stirring  until  dissolved.  When  the  mixture  just 
clears,  and  no  more,  test  with  your  hydrometer,  and  you  will  see  at  once  the  state  of  the  bath. 
If  the  hydrometer  marks  thirty  grains,  or  nearly  thirty  grains,  the  original  strength  of  the 
bath,  your  bath  is  nearly  saturated  ;  but  if  the  hydrometer  mark  only  twenty  grains,  or  less, 
you  need  not  fear  pinholes  from  over-iodizing  for  some  time  to  come. — ELBERT  ANDERSOX 


134  WILSON'S   PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

lodion  is  old,  red,  and  insensitive,  or  that  the  bath  is  highly  charged  with 
acid  in  the  vain  endeavor  to  get  rid  of  fogging,  or  perhaps  Loth. 

179.  The  authorities  do  not  always  agree  as  to  the  cause  of  these  an- 
noying spots,  and  sometimes  their  appearance  is  so  mysteriously  sudden 
and  so  persistently  continuous  as  to  baffle  even  the  doctors  of  photog- 
raphy themselves.     It  is  often  serviceable,  when  such  annoyances  occur, 
to  go  back  mentally  and  think  over  what  you  have  done,  and  mayhap 
the  cause  of  your  annoyance  will  come  to  you.     The  causes  of  this  an- 
noyance, at  least,  are  well  laid  down  in  the  notes. 

180.  There  is  this  one  agreeable  thing  about  photographic  manipula- 
tion, however:  the  chemicals,  under  certain  conditions,  are  pretty  sure  to 

179.  The  following  are  frequent  causes  of  spots  on  the  collodion  plate.     First.  Newly- 
iodized  collodion.     1.  Containing  bromide  of  potassium  in  quantity  more  than  the  collodion 
will  dissolve;  in  this  case  the  spots  will  be  round  and  transparent,  thickly  studding  the 
plate.     Allow  twenty-four  hours  to  subside,  and  draw  off  the  upper  part.     2.  The  collodion 
is  free  from  undissolved  particles  of  iodide,  but  contains  a  fine  sediment  of  pyroxylin  ;  specks 
from  this  cause  are  extremely  minute  and  abundant.     Three  or  four  days'  setting  will  clear 
the  collodion ;  but  very  often  the  specks  will  disappear  if  a  portion  of  a  more  intense  col- 
lodion be  mixed  with  the  newly  iodized.     3.  The  collodion  is  free  from  suspended  iodide  or 
undissolved  pyroxylin,  but,  nevertheless,  the  plate  shows  transparent  specks.     In  this  case, 
the  specks  may  be  due  to  dust,  but  the   remedy  last  given  is  the  most  likely  to  prove 
successful. 

Second.  Faults  of  the  bath.  1.  Newly  made  from  impure  nitrate  of  silver.  In  this  case 
the  image  will  be  very  weak  as  well  as  spotty,  and  the  bath  will  require  a  trace  of  acetate. 
2.  Iodide  of  silver,  previously  dissolved  in  the  bath,  crystallizing  upon  the  film.  The  film, 
in  such  a  case,  exhibits  little  projecting  points  upon  the  surface  of  the  iodide  before  exposure 
in  the  camera,  and  transparent  pinholes  after  fixing.  Add  to  the  bath  a  sixth  part  of  a 
thirty  grain  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  not  containing  any  iodide  of  silver,  and  remove  the 
plate  from  the  solution  after  an  immersion  of  two  minutes.  Or,  leave  a  sensitive  plate  in 
the  solution  all  night,  that  the  excess  of  iodide  of  silver  may  gradually  crystallize  upon  its 
surface,  and  so  be  removed.  3.  A  floating  film  of  iodide  of  silver  upon  the  surface  of  the 
bath.  These  spots  are  not  universally  distributed,  and  are  larger  than  the  last.  Kemedy : 
Change  the  collodion  or  the  time  of  dipping.  4.  Deposits  of  reduced  silver  on  the  sides  of 
the  bath  and  dipper,  or  fragments  of  iodized  collodion  which  have  fallen  into  the  solution. 
Spots  so  produced  are  easily  recognized,  and  the  appearance  of  the  picture  at  once  shows 
that  the  bath  requires  filtering. — T.  FREDERICK  HARDWICH. 

180.  To  FIND  THE  CAUSE  OF  PINHOLES. — Pour  one  ounce  of  the  bath  into  a  glass  graduate, 
and  add,  slowly,  a  drachm  at  a  time  of  pure  water  to  the  solution.     If,  on  adding  one  or 
two  drachms  of  water,  the  solution  turns  milky,  the  holes  are  caused  by  an  excess  of  iodide, 
which  at  once  remove  by  pouring  your  entire  bath  into  an  equal  quantity  of  pure  water, 
allowing  the  iodide  to  settle  to  the  bottom,  and  filter,  and  either  boil  down  the  bath  to  forty 
grains  per  ounce  or  add  new  silver.     If,  on  the  contrary,  you  can  add  from  one  to  four 
ounces  of  water,  and  the  solution  does  not  turn  milky,  the  pinholes  are  caused  by  a  lack  ol 


MANIPULATORY    MISERIES.  135 

behave  handsomely  and  satisfactorily.  Knowing  these  conditions,  then, 
obey  them,  and  your  results  will  be  what  you  desire.  If  they  are  not, 
there  is  a  cause,  and  the  sooner  you  think  it  out,  look  it  up,  and  eradicate 
it,  the  sooner  you  will  "  be  happy." 

181.  Blueness  of  the  film  after  immersion  in  the  nitrate  bath  some- 
times occurs.  This  may  be  caused  by  a  bath  too  strong  for  the  collodion ; 
a  bath  not  iodized  sufficiently ;  too  cold  a  temperature  (your  dark-room 

iodide ;  then  add  more  to  the  bath.  Plate-holders,  tablets,  and  cameras,  as  well  as  your 
bottles  and  shelves  and  floor  of  the  dark-room,  must  be  wiped  damp  every  day. 

As  the  remedies  in  all  of  the  above  instances  are  very  obvious,  I  will  only  give  the  treat- 
ment for  removing  them  from  an  old  weak  bath.  Say  your  bath  is  a  twenty-ounce  one,  pour 
it  into  twenty  ounces  of  ice-water ;  a  canary-colored,  cloudy  precipitate  will  be  the  result. 
Allow  it  to  settle,  then  filter  the  solution  clear.  You  may  now  either  add  to  it  two  ounces 
of  nitrate  of  silver,  or  boil  it  down  to  twenty  ounces  of  solution,  when  it  is  again  as  good  as 
new.  The  above  treatment  will  restore  a  badly- working  bath  almost  without  fail.  If  it 
dues  not,  waste  no  time,  but  make  it  into  a  printing-bath  by  neutralizing  the  acid  in  it  with 
ammonia;  the  iodide  remaining  in  it  may  or  may  not  be  removed,  as  it  does  not  seem  to 
affect  the  tone  of  the  prints. — C.  A.  ZIMMERMAN. 

My  process  consists  in  adding  five  drops  of  chemically-pure  hydrochloric  acid  to  every 
hundred  ounces  of  the  bath,  and  stirring  it  thoroughly  for  some  time,  then  filtering  it.  By 
this  means  the  excess  of  iodide  of  silver  will  combine  with  the  chloride  of  silver,  and,  throw- 
ing it  down,  leave  us  a  bath  that  will  give  clear  negatives  without  any  of  the  so-called  pin- 
holes.  For  every  drop  of  hydrochloric  acid  added  to  the  bath  an  equivalent  amount  of 
nitric  acid  is  set  free,  probably  rendering  the  bath  too  acid.  In  order  to  neutralize  the  acid 
and  bring  the  bath  to  its  original  strength,  the  best  way  is  to  add  carbonate  of  silver,  which 
is  taken  up  by  the  nitric  acid,  setting  carbonic  acid  free,  and  forming  again  nitrate  of  silver. 
In  order  to  prepare  the  carbonate  of  silver  in  a  simple  way,  add  a  solution  of  chemically- 
pure  carbonate  of  soda  to  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  so  long  as  a  precipitate  is  formed, 
which  is  to  be  thoroughly  washed  and  dried  at  common  temperature.  I  use  the  carbonate 
of  soda  in  preference  to  the  carbonate  of  potassa  on  account  of  its  being  more  easily  obtained 
in  a  pure  state. — J.  TRAILL  TAYLOR. 

When  my  bath  becomes  charged  with  alcohol  and  ether,  but  works  well  otherwise,  I  pour 
it  into  a  bottle  containing  one-third  its  bulk  of  water  ;  filter,  neutralize  with  liquid  ammonia, 
and  pour  into  an  evaporating-dish,  and  boil  down  to  its  original  strength.  Filter,  and  add 
nitric  acid  sufficient,  and  it  is  ready  for  work  again.  But  if  the  bath  has  become  contami- 
nated with  organic  matter,  it  will  be  best  to  boil  it  down  and  fuse  it ;  then  redissolve  in 
purified  water,  acidify,  and  it  generally  works  better  than  a  new  bath.  Keep  three  or  four 
baths  on  hand,  and  while  you  are  working  one  have  the  others  in  the  sun,  after  being  first 
treated  as  above. — J.  A.  W.  PITTMAN. 

181.  One  of  the  great  secrets  in  making  nice,  clean  negatives,  is  to  keep  your  chemicals  at 
an  even  temperature  both  winter  and  summer;  and  in  order  to  do  so,  make  a  wooden 
box,  or,  better  still,  have  your  tinner  to  make  you  one  out  of  galvanized  iron,  large  enough 
to  hold  your  baths,  having  a  Y-shaped  trough  back  of  the  baths  for  the  receptacle  of  ice  in 
summer,  and  made  so  as  to  lift  out  in  order  to  empty  the  water  in  the  morning,  then  replace 


136  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

should  never  be  below  55°  or  60°),  and,  also,  by  too  thin  or  old  and 
insensitive  collodion. 

182.  BLACK  AND  WHITE  NEGATIVES  WITHOUT  HALF-TONES. — Such  are 
caused  by  under-exposure  ;  by  the  contamination  of  the  nitrate  bath  after 
long  use  ;  by  using  a  collodion  that  is  too  old  and  red ;  too  much  acid  in  the 
negative  bath ;    too  strong  a  developer ;    and,  finally,  by  boiling  your 
nitrate  bath  to  fusion.     A  great  many  recommend  this  latter  method  to 
get  rid  of  organic  matter  in  the  bath,  and  yet  so  few  know  how  to  do  it 
properly.     If  it  is  fused  beyond  a  certain  point,  solarizatiori  of  the  nega- 
tives is  sure  to  result,  and  you  get  chalky  whites  and  deep  blacks  with- 
out detail  or  half-tones. 

183.  FLATNESS  AND  WANT  OF  CONTRAST. — This  may  be  caused  by  over- 
exposure  ;  by  using  too  large  a  quantity  of  developer,  thereby  washing 

and  add  ice  for  the  day  ;  the  whole  to  be  covered  with  a  top  hinged  just  back  of  the  baths  so 
as  to  open  both  ways — one  part  to  cover  the  baths,  the  other  to  cover  the  ice-dish.  Then 
the  door  in  front  is  made  so  that  you  may  utilize  the  space  under  the  front  of  the  baths  for 
your  collodion  and  developer;  consequently,  you  have  your  bath,  collodion,  and  developer 
all  of  the  same  temperature  in  summer. — FRANK  THOMAS. 

At  night,  when  all  work  is  ended  for  the  day,  I  take  my  heater  to  the  stove  and  carefully 
put  a  couple  of  shovelfuls  of  hot  ashes  out  of  the  stove  into  the  heater,  put  on  the  cover, 
wipe  off  any  superfluous  dust,  carry  it  into  the  dark-room,  and  stand  the  whole  thing  in  the 
middle  of  the  room  on  three  clean  bricks,  and  in  the  morning  I  repeat  the  operation  (leaving 
the  old  ashes  in  the  heater,  and  only  taking  them  out  to  make  room  for  fresh,  but  always 
leaving  some  in),  and  my  dark-room,  after  the  usual  cleaning,  is  ready  for  business,  and  will 
keep  evenly  warm  until  night,  as  the  ashes  hold  their  heat  a  long  time,  and  are  almost  as 
hot  at  night  as  when  they  were  put  in  in  the  morning.  It  is  a  very  cheap  contrivance  and 
answers  admirably,  entailing  no  expense,  and  being  free  from  disagreeable  smells,  like  coal- 
oil  stoves  emit.  It  will  last  a  lifetime.  I  made  mine  myself  out  of  an  old  five-gallon  oil- 
drum,  and  any  handy  man  can  make  his  own. — L.  A.  WELLER. 

182.  When  a  negative  is  under-exposed,  it  will  look  much  like  an  ambrotype  ;  it  is  black 
and  white,  and  generally  too  intense  for  a  good  picture.     An  over-exposed  negative  is  just 
the  reverse ;  you  can  hardly  see  the  image  when  looking  at  it  by  reflected  light.      Prints 
from  it  are  flat  and  gray,  face  and  drapery  being  nearly  of  one  color. — G.  H.  FENNEMORE. 

I  suggest  that  when  a  bath  ceases  to  work  well,  it  is  not  worth  while  to  waste  much  time 
in  coaxing  it.  Success  is  doubtful,  and,  if  a  single  trial  or  two  does  not  succeed,  it  is  better 
to  turn  the  bath  into  a  bottle,  and  make  a  new  bath.  It  is  no  waste  of  material,  and  con- 
siderable saving  of  time  and  patience. — M.  CAREY  LEA. 

183.  The  introduction  of  iron  for  development  has  almost  entirely  changed  the  method  of 
working,  and  now  the  rule  is  to  employ  a  much  weaker  printing-bath  and  use  subdued  light 
instead  of  sunlight.     The  time,  however,  necessary  to  produce  a  print  is  very  nearly  the 
same,  notwithstanding  the  very  thin  character  of  the  negative  as  compared  with  the  old 
ones.     I  do  not,  however,  wish  it  to  be  understood  that  I  consider  half  a  day  needful  for  the 


MANIPULATORY    MISERIES.  137 

off  most  of  the  free  nitrate  of  silver,  or  by  using  too  new  a  collodion ; 
by  plates  remaining  too  long  in  the  nitrate  bath  ;  by  too  much  time  in- 
tervening between  the  removal  from  the  bath  and  the  development,  and 
by  the  use  of  too  much  bromide  in  the  collodion. 

184.  AN  APPARENT  FORMATION  OF  NETWORK  AFTER  THE  FILM  is  DRY. — 
This  may  bo  caused  by  using  alcohol  that  is  not  absolute,  and  therefore 
containing  too  much  water ;  or,  if  you  use  potassium  salts  for  iodizing  or 
bromizing,  you  may  use  too  much  water  in  dissolving  them.     It  is  some- 
times caused  also  by  impure  ether.     Crapy  lines  are  formed  by  the  col- 
lodion being  too  thick;  in  which  case  thin  it  down  with  iodizing  solu- 
tion.    Sometimes  they  result  from  the  collodion  being  too  gelatinous  ;  in 
that  case  add  some  old  limpid  collodion  to  it. 

185.  There  are  two  other  negative  trials  which  are  apt  to  occur,  and 
which  are  too  important  to  be  overlooked.     One  of  these  is  known  as 

production  of  a  print  from  an  average  negative  of  the  present  day.  The  experience  of  many 
will,  however,  bear  me  out  in  saying  that  from  negatives  yielding,  in  summer,  prints  full  of 
gradation,  the  results  at  this  time  of  year  are  totally  different,  and  that  hardness  is  the  rule; 
whilst  from  many  negatives  that  printed  respectably  in  bright  weather,  presentable  results 
cannot  now  be  obtained  at  all.  On  the  other  hand,  many  negatives  that  in  very  bright 
weather,  even  in  the  most  shady  street  possible,  gave  flat,  poor  prints,  are  now  found  to  yield 
perfect  results. — VALENTINE  BLANCHARD. 

184.  A  great  number  of  experiments  have  recently  been  made  in  order  to  discover  the 
best  method  to  adopt  in  the  chemical  laboratory  to  detect  the  presence  of  water  and  alcohol 
in  commercial  ether.     After  many  trials  it  appears  that  the  old  method,  which  consists  in 
washing  the  ether,  is,  after  all,  the  best.     A  given  quantity  of  the  sample  is  put  into  a  finely 
graduated  tube  ;    the  volume  is  noted ;   the  same  volume  of  cold  distilled  water  is  added ; 
the  tube  is  corked  to  prevent  a  loss  of  ether  by  evaporation,  then  the  whole  is  shaken, 
frequently  reversing  the  tube.     When  the  ether  contains  alcohol,  this  last  is  dissolved  in  the 
water ;    the  column  of  ether  which  rises  to  the  top  is  measured  with  care,  and  the  difference 
between  it  and  the  original  volume  represents  that  of  the  alcohol  and  water  contained  in  the 
sample.     As  ether  is  slightly  soluble  in  pure  water,  the  results  are  a  little  too  high.     In 
reality,  one  hundred  parts  of  water  dissolve  ten  parts  of  ether,  whilst  the  same  quantity  of 
water  dissolves  an  indefinite  quantity  of  alcohol.     To  be  exact,  allowance  must  be  made  for 
the  quantity  of  ether  which  may  have  been  dissolved  in  making  this  little  experiment. — 
DR.  PHIPSON. 

185.  Should  the  "lighting  "  be  correct,  and  the  bath  yield  harsh  or  black  and  white  plates, 
it  can  be  from  two  causes:     1.   Insufficient  time  of  exposure.     2.   Insufficient  iodide  in  the 
bath.     Should  the  latter  be  the  cause,  coat  the  largest  plate  the  bath  can  take  on  both  sides 
with  collodion,  and  leave  it  in  the  solution  over  night,  or  at  such  times  when  the  bath  is  not  in 
use. — ELBERT  ANDERSON. 

Where  I  know  that  the  negative  has  received  too  brief  an  exposure,  I  expose  to  the 
gaslight,  regulating  my  development  carefully  according  to  the  result;    and  here  (in  the 


138  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

density.  Negatives  afflicted  with  this  are  a  trouble  to  the  printer,  and 
the  prints  made  from  them  are  usually  of  an  indifferent  character.  This 
fault  may  be  in  a  measure  cured  by  the  employment  of  a  reducing  pro- 
cess, which  is  always  one  which  requires  the  nicest  care  and  a  knowledge 
beforehand  of  the  quality  you  desire  to  secure. 

186.  The  second  trial  alluded  to  is  known  as  "weakness"  of  the  films, 
and  is  caused  most  generally  from  otfer-exposure.  A  bath  too  strong  for 
the  collodion  used,  or  a  bath  that  is  weak;  collodion  insufficiently  salted, 

development)  we  have  a  wonderful  power  if  we  observe  closely.  Then,  again,  in  intensify- 
ing, we  possess  another  power  of  modifying  the  resulting  picture  ;  so  that,  with  care  and 
judgment,  by  the  secondary  exposure,  a  negative  that  has  had  insufficient  time  in  the  camera 
may  be  made  to  give  a  fairly-good  print  instead  of  being  rejected.  There  is  not  a  photogra- 
pher, I  suppose,  who  is  not  fully  alive  to  the  importance  of  keeping  the  chemicals  at  a  suitable 
temperature  during  cold  weather,  and  there  is  no  way  so  good  as  having  the  dark-room 
continually  warm  both  night  and  day. — ALFRED  HUGHES. 

This  method  of  reducing  the  intensity  of  the  negative  has  reference  only  to  that  class 
of  negatives  which  is  produced  by  under-exposure,  too  strong  contrast  of  light  and  shadow, 
collodion  too  thick,  or  bath  too  acid,  where  the  high-lights  are  so  dense  that  the  negative 
yields  only  white  and  black,  hard,  chalky  prints.  In  such  cases  pour  over  the  negative, 
after  the  fixing  solution  of  hypo,  or  cyanide  has  been  washed  away,  a  very  dilute  solution 
of  perchloride  of  iron.  Allow  this  to  act  on  the  deposit  of  the  high-lights  until  a  slight  change 
of  color  takes  place,  then  well  wash  and  pour  over  again  the  usual  hypo,  or  cyanide  fixing 
solution.  The  dense  deposit  on  the  high-lights  will  be  found  to  be  reduced  in  intensity  pro- 
portional to  the  action  of  the  perchloride  of  iron  solution.  The  best  advice  I  can  give  is  to 
bear  in  mind  the  principle  of  the  chemical  change  that  takes  place.  The  original  dense  de- 
posit forming  the  high-lights  of  the  negative  is  composed  of  metallic  silver;  this  is  not 
soluble  in  either  hypo,  or  cyanide.  By  pouring  on  solution  of  perchloridoof  iron,  the  outer 
layer  of  the  deposit  is  changed  into  chloride  of  silver,  and  chloride  of  silver  is  very  soluble 
in  the  fixing  solution.  If  the  perchloride  solution  be  allowed  to  remain  on  too  long,  all  the 
silver  forming  the  deposit  will  be  changed  into  chloride  of  silver,  and  will  all  be  dissolved 
away.  This  is  clearly  doing  more  than  is  required  ;  the  real  point  to  be  gained  is  to  dissolve 
away  only  that  excess  which  renders  the  negative  too  dense.  The  whole  operation  is  a  deli- 
cate one,  and  requires  quite  as  much  judgment  to  be  exercised  as  in  developing  or  intensify- 
ing a  negative.  It  is  really  a  process  exactly  the  reverse  of  intensifying  ;  but  there  is  this 
difference — that  intensifying  is  usually  done  at  one  operation,  and  the  process  can  be  ob- 
served as  it  proceeds.  In  this,  however,  the  real  action  is  done  by  the  perchloride,  and  the 
exact  amount  of  the  action  cannot  be  told  until  the  fixing  solution  is  employed  to  show  the 
change  that  has  taken  place.  The  greatest  care  is,  therefore,  necessary  in  using  the  per- 
chloride, otherwise  a  negative  may  be  injured  instead  of  being  improved — JABEZ  HUGHES. 

186.  A  correspondent  of  the  Philadelphia  Photographer  says:  "As  the  tendency  of  all 
intensifiers  is  to  flatten  and  destroy  the  beauty  of  the  photograph,  it  is  desirable  to  omit  them 
as  much  as  possible.  I  often  avoid  their  use  by  the  following  '  dodge.'  If,  after  the  negative 
is  developed,  fixed,  and  washed,  it  needs  a  little  reinforcing,  I  dry  it  rapidly  by  the  stove  or 
otherwise,  which  usually  brings  it  right  for  printing.  Any  one  who  will  try  the  experiment 


MANIPULATOR!'    MISERIES.  139 

and  insufficient  immersion  of  the  plate  in  the  bath  also  cause  thinness  or 
weakness  of  the  film.  This  class  of  negative  is  the  easiest  to  make,  he- 
cause  it  allows  the  most  latitude  for  the  careless,  heedless,  slovenly  ma- 
nipulator. In  such  cases  resort  is  had  to  intensification,  but  in  it,  also, 
trouble  occurs,  unless  care  be  exercised.  Formulae  for  intensifies  are 
given  at  page  106.  Here  only  the  troubles  of  it  are  treated. 

187.  All  who  have  the  patience  to  make  portraits  of  children  a  specialty, 
knowr  the  value  of  an  intensifier  close  at  hand.  In  such  extreme  cases  it 
is  excusable,  but  as  a  habit  it  is  uncalled  for.  In  making  copies,  too, 
where  sufficient  printing  density  cannot  otherwise  be  had,  resort  is  had 

will  be  surprised  at  the  difference  between  a  negative  thus  dried  and  one  that  is  allowed  to 
dry  spontaneously.  Negatives,  after  washing,  should  be  flowed  while  wet  with  a  solution 
of  gum-arabic  in  water.  This  prevents  the  hard  varnish  from  changing  them." 

It  often  happens  with  an  under-exposed  negative  that  it  is  desirable  to  intensify  only  certain 
portions  of  it,  as,  for  example,  a  portrait  in  which  the  hands  and  face  would  be  completely 
spoiled  before  the  other  portion  obtained  sufficient  density.  With  careful  manipulation, 
the  following  dodge  will  be  found  useful :  After  development,  stand  the  negative  on  end 
to  drain,  and  when  half  dry — i.e.,  when  it  has  lost  its  watery  appearance — hold  it  over  a 
tiny  gas  jet,  allowing  the  flame  to  come  and  the  drying  to  commence  in  the  centre  of  the 
face.  Have  the  water  ready  to  hand,  and,  when  the  small  dry  patch  has  extended  to  the 
edge  of  the  face,  dash  the  water  over  the  negative.  The  intensifying  may  now  be  proceeded 
with,  and  much  of  the  detail  in  the  features  will  be  saved  which  would  otherwise  have  been 
lost.— R.  V.  HARMJ.N. 

The  chief  defects  that  arise  through  intensifying  are  those  which  may  also  occur  in  de- 
velopment. Fog  and  a  red  deposit  are  chiefly  to  be  anticipated.  The  former  may  occur 
before  fixing  if  the  pictures  be  over-exposed ;  the  latter,  both  before  and  after  fixing,  by  the 
addition  of  too  much  free  nitrate  of  silver  to  the  intensifier;  or  again,  after  fixing,  by  the 
imperfect  washing  of  the  film  before  the  intensifier  is  applied.  The  red  stain  will  often  yield 
to  treatment  with  a  solution  of  acetic  acid  and  water  (half  to  half).  It  should  be  noted  that 
the  larger  the  amount  of  silver  added  the  more  rapid  will  be  the  intensification ;  but  the 
half-tones  will  not  be  brought  up  proportionally  to  the  high-lights.  The  smaller  the  quantity 
of  silver  used,  the  greater  will  be  the  comparative  force  given  to  them,  and  the  longer  time 
it  will  take.  Thus,  a  negative  lacking  in  contrast  may  be  corrected  by  using  an  intensifier 
with  large,  and  one  too  rich  in  contrast  with  small,  doses  of  silver.  When  the  mixture  of 
pyrogallic  acid  and  silver  becomes  turbid,  it  must  be  rejected,  and  a  fresh  solution  poured  on. 
Sometimes  a  bluish  precipitate  will  form  in  the  shadows  ;  when  this  takes  place,  it  is  an  indi- 
cation that  the  intensifier  is  not  sufficiently  acid.  Intensification  with  iron  is  equally  as  rapid 
as  with  pyrogallic  acid.  When  using  the  former,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  use  about  twice 
as  much  silver.  With  landscapes  and  portraits,  intensifying  is  comparatively  easy  work. 
With  reproductions  of  drawing,  plans,  or  manuscript,  it  requires  more  time  and  great  care. 
The  fine  lines  become  easily  veiled  or  the  plate  unequal. — J.  L.  GIHON. 

187.  Permanganate  of  potash  is  much  used,  but  concerning  it,  one  thing,  however,  can  ba 
said,  namely,  that  it  lacks  force  in  its  operations  upon  a  negative,  does  not  thicken,  as  it  were 


140  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS 

to  intensification.  There  are  many  methods  of  procedure  in  this  line,  some 
acting  with  the  delicacy  of  a  jeweller's  tool,  while  others  possess  the 
power  of  a  veritable  sledge.  Thus  all  sorts  of  effects  are  obtainable. 

188.  As  will  be  observed,  some  methods  of  intensification  secure  only 
a  change  in  color  of  the  negative,  while  with  others  an  actual  chemical 
change  is  caused  in  the  films.  Experience  will  teach  the  manipulator 

but  merely  changes  the  color  of  the  deposit.  This,  I  have  found,  can  be  entirely  obviated 
by  adding  bichromate  of  potash.  My  formula  is  : 

1. — Permanganate  of  Potash,        ........       5  grains. 

Water, 1  ounce. 

2.— Bichromate  of  Potash, 10  grains. 

Water, 1  ounce. 

These  solutions  are  made  up  and  kept  separate,  being  mixed  in  equal  proportions  when 
wanted.  It  is  exceedingly  useful  for  intensifying  a  negative  of  a  baby  which  has  been 
much  under-exposed,  or  for  enlarged  copies  or  negatives  of  line  engravings  for  silver  print- 
ing or  photo-lithography.  The  improved  intensifier  is  used  after  fixing,  and  after  the 
negative  is  strengthened  and  washed  it  should  be  flowed  with  a  solution  of  gum-arabic.  In 
some  instances  it  is  not  advisable  to  varnish,  but  print  with  care  without  varnishing. — 
DAVID  DUNCAN. 

I  claim  to  have  originated  this  intensifier.     The  formula  is  as  follows : 

1. — Hydrochlorate  of  Ammonia,  ........       1  ounce. 

Bichloride  of  Mercury, 1       " 

Distilled  Water, 20  ounces. 

2.— Chloride  of  Gold, 1  grain. 

Distilled  Water, 1  drachm. 

To  make  the  intensifier,  put  two  drachms  of  each  solution  into  a  four-ounce  bottle  and 
fill  up  with  water.  A  small  quantity  of  this  should  be  poured  rapidly  over  the  negative, 
from  a  glass  measure,  and  kept  moving  upon  the  surface  in  the  ustial  way  until  the  necessary 
density  is  obtained.  If  it  has  lost  its  yellow  color,  and  become  white  when  returned  into 
the  glass,  it  should  be  thrown  away,  and  the  operation,  if  incomplete,  must  be  continued 
with  fresh  solution.  I  may  add  that  there  is  yet  another  and  not  unimportant  merit  in  this 
intensifier.  A  small  quantity  applied  to  the  film  of  a  well-exposed  and  fully  developed 
negative  will  enable  you  to  view  the  portrait  through  the  glass,  and  then  it  has  the  appear- 
ance of  a  very  delicate  and  beautifully  shaded  positive,  thus  permitting  the  sitter  to  judge 
at  once  of  the  likeness,  expression,  etc.  In  the  case  of  a  very  thin  negative,  the  intensifier 
may  be  followed  by  a  weak  solution  of  iodide  of  potassium — half  a  grain  to  an  ounce  of 
water. — J.  A.  WINTER. 

188.  Perchloride  of  iron  is  a  salt  easily  obtainable  in  commerce.  It  is  very  deliquescent, 
very  cheap,  and  a  little  goes  a  long  way.  My  method  of  using  it  is  thus :  I  make  a  stock  solution 
of,  say,  ten  or  twenty  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water.  This  makes  a  dark,  cherry-colored  solution. 
At  the  time  of  using  I  add  a  few  drops  of  this  solution  to  an  ounce  of  water  in  a  measure-glass. 
This  dilute  solution  should  not  be  darker  than  a  pale  golden  tint.  I  pour  it  over  the  well- 
washed  plate  and  watch  the  change.  In  a  few  seconds  the  deposit  forming  the  high-lights 
changes  very  slightly  from  its  drab  color  to  a  pale  ashy  hue.  I  then  wash  it  off  well,  and 


MANIPULATORY    MISERIES.  141 

which  to  choose  in  time  of  need.  Knowing  how  far  short  the  negative  in 
hand  comes  from  heing  desirable  in  every  way,  he  must  select  the  means 
of  recovering  it  which  will  he  the  surest,  as  he  would  select  a  tool  were, 
he  a  mechanic.  The  perchloride  of  iron,  perhaps,  acts  with  most  cer- 
tainty and  is  the  easiest  to  manage,  though  it  is  largely  a  matter  of  choice. 

next  pour  over  the  hypo,  solution  used  for  fixing.  This  dissolves  away  the  thin  layer  that 
has  changed  color.  I  wash  well  again  and  examine  the  negative  to  observe  if  sufficient 
deposit  has  been  removed.  If  it  has,  the  operation  is  complete;  if  it  be  still  too  dense,  I 
repeat  the  operation  with  the  perchloride  and  the  hypo,  as  before,  well  washing  between  the 
operations.  If  the  perchloride  be  too  strong,  or  has  been  left  on  too  long,  the  negative  will 
be  found  to  have  been  reduced  too  much,  and  recourse  must  be  had  to  the  usual  intensifying 
process  to  recover  what  has  been  lost.  This,  however,  is  not  nearly  so  desirable  as  reducing 
only  to  just  the  desirable  extent.  I  should  mention  that  this  method  leaves  the  silver  in  a 
spongy  state  that  is  easily  penetrated  by  the  varnish  ;  it  is  better,  therefore,  rather  to  under 
than  overdo  this  reduction,  otherwise  the  negative,  when  varnished,  will  be  too  weak  in  the 
high-lights.  I  rarely  reduce  my  negative  by  only  one  operation  of  the  perchloride  and  hypo., 
but  I  generally  use  the  solutions  alternately  two  or  even  three  times,  and  thus  gradually 
approach  my  result,  it  being  very  difficult,  especially  if  there  be  much  density,  to  exactly 
estimate  the  influence  of  the  perchloride  solution.  In  this  method  it  is  best  to  experiment 
on  a  useless  plate  or  two.  At  first  most  persons  will  either  carry  the  process  of  reduction 
too  far,  or  will  not  carry  it  far  enough.  I  know  few  processes  requiring  more  judgment  in 
its  use  than  this  one,  but  it  is  really  at  times  so  useful  that  all  photographers  should  be 
acquainted  with  it.  By  its  employment  many  otherwise  useless  negatives  may  be  made  to 
produce  passable  prints.  It  can  be  used  advantageously  to  reduce  the  intensity  of  a  negative 
in  local  parts.  It  may  be  poured  on  hands  or  foreheads,  shirt-fronts,  white  skirts,  or  similar 
parts  that  are  relatively  too  dense.  I  use  a  dropping-bottle  with  a  fine  orifice,  and,  holding 
it  close  to  the  plate,  pour  on  a  fine  stream  to  just  where  I  want  to  localize  the  effect,  washing 
instantly  the  solution  away  before  it  sensibly  acts  on  the  adjoining  parts.  This  I  repeat  two 
or  three  times  in  succession,  washing  between,  when  I  have  a  small  part — say  the  side  of  a 
face,  hands,  white  gloves,  or  handkerchief — prior  to  using  the  fixing  agent. — JABEZ  HUGHES. 
The  ferridcyanide  of  potassium  system  is  also  very  valuable,  but  the  chemicals  are  rather 
more  difficult  to  obtain.  I  had  often  admired  the  negatives  produced  by  Dr.  Maidstone 
Smith,  of  Bath,  sent  to  me  for  enlargement,  and  he  has  kindly  given  me  his  formula,  which 
works  admirably,  the  only  drawback  being  a  slight  liability  to  stain  ;  the  increase  of  power 
is  obtained  solely  by  change  of  color,  and,  as  in  the  above,  the  solutions  keep  permanently. 

1. — Persulphate  of  Uranium,        ........     1  drachm. 

Water,     ............     6  ounces. 

And,  in  a  separate  bottle, 

2. — Ferridcyanide  of  Potassium, 1  drachm. 

Water, 6  ounces. 

Take  a  drachm  (according  to  size  of  plate)  of  number  one,  and  flood  the  plate  whilst  wet; 
pour  back  to  the  measure,  and  add  number  two,  drop  by  drop,  and  work  over  the  plate.  It 
is  the  latter  that  gives  the  intensifying  power,  and  it  must  be  slowly  added  ;  the  intensity  is 
gradually  given,  and  the  result  very  beautiful.  Which  of  these  two  systems  is  preferable  I 


142  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

189.  After  the  negative  has  run  the  gauntlet  of  all  the  preceding 
troubles  it  must  be  varnished,  as  has  already  been  stated.  (See  page  114.) 
It  is  then  entrusted  to  the  tender  mercies  of  the  printer,  who,  if  in  sym- 
pathy with  the  manipulator,  will  secure  from  it  the  best  possible  results. 
He  is  not  always  careful,  however.  The  negative  that  produces  the  best 
results  is  the  most  used,  and  often  the  most  abused.  The  varnish  be- 
comes full  of  dust  and  specks  which  are  allowed  to  fall  upon  and  become 
imbedded  in  it,  and  it  must  be  removed  and  the  plate  revarnished.  Or 
it  may  be  that  the  negative  is  no  longer  serviceable,  and  it  is  required  to 
remove  the  film  in  order  to  use  the  glass  again. 

really  find  it  difficult  to  say,  both  are  very  good ;  and  I  fancy  the  composition  of  the  image 
equally  good  in  either  case.  Such  negatives,  when  varnished,  are  as  smooth  as  the  glass 
itself. — SAMUEL  FRY. 

I  read  of  a  man  whose  health  suffered  from  the  use  of  intensifiers.  Why  use  mercury, 
sulphuret,  etc.,  when  iron  will  do  the  work  quickly  or  slowly,  as  you  choose  to  have  it  ?  Beside 
it  works  very  effectually.  Below  is  a  formula  for  which  I  am  indebted  to  the  editor  of  the 
Philadelphia  -Photographer  ;  since  using  it  I  have  had  no  trouble  in  getting  all  the  intensity 
I  want.  If  it  turns  muddy,  increase  the  dose  of  the  acid  a  little.  Here  it  is  : 

Sulphate  of  Iron, 1  ounce. 

Citric  Acid, £      " 

Water, 1  quart. 

Use  either  before  or  after  fixing,  as  you  like  best,  with  a  few  drops  of  silver  in  it  just  before 
use,  as  in  case  of  the  pyro.  intensifier. — RANALD  DOUGLASS. 

189.  Many  methods  have  been  suggested  for  removing  the  varnish  from  old  plates.  A 
mixture  of  benzine  and  alcohol  in  equal  parts,  agitated  and  poured  on  the  plate,  generally 
acts  very  quickly  and  very  well.  The  last  traces  of  reduced  silver  which  may  yet  adhere 
are  then  removed  by  iodized  alcohol  (alcohol  100,  iodine  0.50).  When  the  surface  is  properly 
cleaned,  it  is  rubbed  over  with  the  finger  or  a  tuft  of  cotton  lightly  impregnated  with  tallow, 
and  wiped  dry.  Plates  thus  prepared  may  be  kept  indefinitely,  and  are  protected  from 
dampness,  the  enemy  which  too  often  imposes  itself  between  the  collodion  and  its  support. — 
ELBERT  ANDERSON. 

Fill  a  large,  flat,  and  deep  porcelain  dish  with  as  many  old  negatives  as  it  will  hold,  or 
that  you  may  wish  to  destroy,  so  overlapping  their  edges  or  placing  them  that  there  will  be 
a  small  space  between  the  surface  of  each  of  the  plates.  Then  pour  upon  the  entire  batch 
sufficient  commercial  nitric  acid  to  entirely  cover  it.  Add  about  four  ounces  of  strong  alcohol 
to  each  quart  of  the  acid.  No  action  takes  place  immediately;  but  in  about  ten  minutes 
ebullition  commences,  and  dense  noxious  fumes  will  be  violently  emitted.  In  an  incredibly 
short  time  collodion  skins,  protected  by  the  hardest  and  most  impenetrable  varnish,  will 
entirely  leave  the  glasses,  and  they  are  ready  for  a  slight  washing,  albumenizing,  and 
further  use.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  suggest  that  the  dish  should  be  placed  in  the  strong 
draught  of  a  chimney,  or  in  the  open  air.  In  half  an  hour  you  can  more  simply  and  effectually 
cleanse  more  old  negatives  than  by  days  of  treatment  with  alkalies  and  acids  used  in  any 
other  manner. — JOHN  L.  GIHON. 

Cover  the  bottom  of  a  dish  with  the  negatives,  face  upwards;  pour  oil  of  vitriol  (sulphuric 


MANIPULATORY    MISERIES.  143 

190.  Another  sort  of  carelessness  also  causes  trouble  with  the  var- 
nished plates.  If  they  are  kept  in  a  damp  place  the  film  will  rise  up  and 
form  inequalities,  which,  when  pressed  upon,  burst,  and  the  plate  is 
ruined — checkered  hopelessly  to  all  appearance.  Again,  rents  occur  in 
the  film,  resulting  from  dirty  plates  as  well  as  dampness.  Often  a  valua- 
ble negative  is  brought  out  from  the  rack,  where  it  has  been  stored  for 
some  time,  looking  pitiful  enough.  Sometimes  racking  it  away  in  a  cold 
place,  while  it  is  still  hot  from  printing  in  the  sun,  will  cau^e  such  defects. 

acid)  on  the  top  of  one,  in  quantity  equal  in  size  to  a  half-crown.  Then  place  another 
negative,  face  down,  on  the  acid.  It  will  soon  spread  itself  all  over  between  the  negatives 
if  sufficient  is  added,  and  the  dish  level.  Now  do  the  same  to  all  the  other  glasses  lying  on 
the  bottom;  after  which,  another  layer,  face  upwards,  and  another,  face  downwards,  with 
acid,  of  course,  between  them.  The  varnish  is  removed  almost  instantly,  and  the  plate  left 
chemically  clean.  When  the  dish  is  full,  tip  it  up,  and  pour  off  the  excess  of  acid  into 
another  bottle  until  it  ceases  to  run  in  a  stream,  but  not  longer.  The  acid  is  now  black  with 
the  charcoal  from  the  decomposed  organic  matter  on  the  plate.  This  used  acid  is  the  first  to 
be  employed  on  the  next  occasion,  but  requires  a  little  more  to  be  used,  and  allowed  to 
rest  an  hour  or  two  after  the  excess  has  been  poured  off  as  before  directed.  The  next  thing 
to  do  is  to  upset  the  dish  in  a  pan  of  water,  separate  the  glasses,  and  rub  their  surfaces  with 
the  hand  under  water,  and  then  let  a  little  stream  of  clean  water  play  on  "both  surfaces  for 
half  a  minute,  and  stand  up  to  drain.  There  is  no  danger  of  the  acid  injuring  the  fingers 
under  water,  nor  is  it  liable  to  splash  when  being  poured  on  the  plates — it  is  too  oily  for  that. 
This  acid  is  far  more  rapid  than  nitric  acid,  gives  off  no  corrosive  fumes,  and  is  very  cheap. 
The  bottle  ought  to  have  a  stream  of  water  played  over  it  before  put  aside,  so  as  to  be  clean 
and  dry  for  the  next  occasion.  I  never  get  a  dirty  plate  by  this  means. — T.  S.  REEVES. 

190.  When  the  film  blisters,  the  plate  should  be  laid,  varnished  side  downwards,  upon  a 
vessel  filled  with  equal  parts  of  ether  and  alcohol,  when  the  film  would  be  softened  and  lie 
down  again  flat.  The  varnish  might  also  be  removed  by  dissolving  it  at  once  with  alcohol 
and  potash,  but  that  often  displaced  and  injured  the  collodion  film. — HERR  CRIEFELDS. 

Rents  in  the  varnish  of  negatives  may  be  removed  thus :  I  had  been  frequently  troubled 
by  worm-like  rents  in  valuable  plates,  and  tried  a  variety  of  ways  of  removing  them.  With 
powder  I  got  no  good  results,  nor  with  rubbing  in  black  with  oil  of  turpentine  ;  indeed,  that 
sometimes  loosened  the  film.  I  now  always  use  a  little  dust  from  a  corner  of  the  studio, 
rubbed  in  with  a  piece  of  wadding.  Of  course,  when  the  rents  are  wide  they  must  be  filled 
in  by  retouching.  Herr  Brischke  used  powder  scraped  off  lead-pencils. — HERR  CRIEFELDS. 

Some  are  inclined  to  attribute  the  cause  to  dampness,  others  to  dirty  plates  ;  tbut  my  ex- 
perience has,  I  think,  exposed  the  real  fact  that,  air  dry  or  damp,  plates  dirty  or  clean,  an 
abrupt  change  of  temperature  is  the  guilty  worker  of  the  damage.  I  remember  on  one  oc- 
casion (which,  by  the  way,  prompted  my  study  of  the  subject)  taking  a  quantity  of  nega- 
tives safe  and  sound  from  the  storeroom  over  night,  preparatory  to  printing  from  them  on 
the  following  morning;  but,  when  that  morning  dawned,  on  going  to  the  box  I  found  that 
mischief  had  preceded  me,  and  had  worked  ruin  in  shapes  labyrinthine  and  fantastic.  The 
lesson  was  imparted  in  brief;  but  I  quickly  learned  the  necessity  of  transferring  negatives 
at  once  from  the  storeroom  to  frames  when  their  removal  happened  in  dull  winter.  The 


144  WILSON'S    PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

191.  And  now,  having  piloted  your  negatives  safely  across  this  wide  sea 
of  troubles,  do  not  forget  that  there  are  one  or  two  things  that  may  give 
you  personal  trouble,  and  even  cause  your  death  if  care  is  not  exercised. 
The  first  of  these  is  from  the  use  of  cyanide  of  potassium.  It  can  be  en- 
tirely and  utterly  dispensed  with,  and  it  should  be.  But  there  is  a  perver- 
sity about  the  photographer,  also  peculiar  to  human  nature,  which  causes 
him  to  employ  means  to  secure  his  results  in  his  own  way,  despite  the 
many  drawbacks  pointed  out  by  others.  Hence  a  note  further  on  on  this. 

better  plan,  however,  of  avoiding  the  danger  is,  doubtless,  that  which  would  make  such  acci- 
dents less  liable — better  still,  impossible. 

Happily,  an  efficacious  remedy  lies  within  reach  of  every  sufferer.  They  have  only  to  take 
heed  that  they  be  not  again  ensnared  by  the  fallacious  promises  of  brilliant,  crystal-like  var- 
nish ;  for  therein  lies  the  secret  of  the  primary  cause.  Hard  and  non-elastic,  the  varnish 
film  refuses  to  budge  when  the  glass  expands  under  pressure  of  heat,  or  contracts  when  ex- 
posed to  extreme  or,  as  it  sometimes  happens,  even  moderate  cold,  and  the  fruits  of  that 
stubbornness  consist  either  in  the  varnish  coat  separating  into  transparent,  hair-like  lines 
or  in  rising  in  marbled  ridges — in  either  case  dragging  along  with  it  the  collodion  film, 
and  thus  ruining  the  most  valuable  negative  beyond  the  chance  of  redemption.  Varnishes 
that  yield  a  hard,  brilliant  surface  at  all  times  are  indicative  of  danger,  and,  as  such,  suggest 
the  propriety  of  modification — either  by  adding  alcohol  to  reduce  the  non-yielding  body  to 
subjection,  or  by  an  addition  of  an  elastic  gum,  such  as  gum  frankincense,  to  induce  pliability. 
— W.  T.  BOVEY. 

191.  Whenever  an  accident  cccurs  from  imprudent  use  of  cyanide,  such  as  sometimes 
happens  from  an  operator  placing  his  chapped  or  otherwise  broken  hands  into  cyanide  solu- 
tion, the  first  thing  to  be  done  in  case  of  giddiness  or  faintness,  is  to  wash  the  wound  in 
a  saturated  solution  of  chlorine  at  an  ordinary  temperature.  The  patient  should  also  im- 
mediately swallow  two  or  three  grammes  of  the  same  solution  in  a  glass  of  water,  without 
waiting  to  put  sugar  in  it.  He  should  be  at  once  put  to  bed,  or  on  the  nearest  couch,  and 
covered  up  with  warm  blankets,  hot-water  bottles  being  placed  at  his  feet  and  along  the 
whole  length  of  his  body.  The  windows  are  opened  everywhere  to  secure  a  good  circulation 
of  outdoor  air,  for  plenty  of  pure  air  is  as  necessary  as  warmth  in  such  cases.  Tea  or  coffee 
is  now  prepared,  and  the  patient  receives  a  cup  with  ten  drops  of  laudanum  and  one  or  two 
spoonfuls  of  any  alcoholic  liquor,  such  as  rum  or  brandy.  This  dose  is  repeated  three  or 
four  times,  at  intervals  of  from  fifteen  to  thirty  minutes. 

In  cases  where  the  symptoms  are  very  severe,  or  where  the  poison  has  been  taken  in- 
ternallj  ,  in  addition  to  the  above  precautions,  the  dose  of  chlorine  should  be  five  instead  of 
two  or  three  grammes. 

The  patient  should  be  allowed  to  inhale  frequently  from  a  vessel  containing  chlorine 
water.  Every  five  minutes  a  teaspoonful  of  the  following  potion  should  be  administered  : 

Chlorine  Water, 5  grammes. 

Chlorohydrate  of  Ammonia,  ........         2          " 

Sugar  Water, 250 

As  soon  as  the  patient  is  better,  the  laudanum  is  left  out  of  the  tea,  and  the  potion  given 
only  once  in  fifteen  minutes. 


MANIPULATORY    MISERIES.  145 

192  The  other  affliction  general  to  the  photographer  is  the  staining  of 
his  hands.  As  cleanliness  is  advocated  all  through  his  manipulations, 
when  the  work  of  the  day  is  ended  he  also  wants  to  appear  clean.  This 
is  laudable  enough,  but  do  not  use  cyanide  of  potassium  for  vanity's  sake. 
It  is,  perhaps,  the  easiest  and  quickest  means  of  cleansing  the  hands,  but 
it  is  also  the  most  dangerous,  and  should  never  be  resorted  to. 

193.  Still  another  evil — and  perhaps  the  most  insidious  of  them  all— 
is  the  inhalation  of  poisonous  fumes.  Photography  is  not  necessarily  an 
unhealthy  vocation.  There  are  many  veterans  in  our  art  who  are  still 

it  is  well  to  have  the  above  potion  and  the  solution  of  chlorine  always  on  hand,  and 
labelled  with  directions  for  use.  A  case  of  such  poisoning  may  not  occur  in  a  gallery  once 
in  a  lifetime ;  but  still,  if  it  does  occur,  a  valuable  life  may  be  saved  by  the  prompt  use  of  the 
above  remedies,  and  on  the  delay  of  a  minute  vital  issues  may  depend. — J.  L.  GIHON. 

192.  I  have  kept  silver  stains  from  my  hands  for  the  past  six  or  seven  \ears  by  the  use 
of  pumice-stone.     Take  a  piece  the  size  of  an  egg,  and  file  it  smooth  on  all  sides.     When 
through  the  day's  work,  rub  the  hands  with  the  stone  under  the  tap,  and  away  go  the  stains. 
I  got  poisoned  with  cyanide  some  years  ago,  which  induced  me  to  try  the  above,  and,  until  1 
find  something  better,  I  shall  stick  to  the  pumice-stone  rather  than  have  the  silver  stick  to 
me. — WELL  G.  SINGHI. 

Sulphate  of  soda  and  chloride  of  lime,  equal  parts  each.  Add  just  enough  water- to  make 
a  rather  thick  solution.  When  about  to  clean  the  hands,  smear  them  well  with  the  above. 
It  will  not  act  instantly,  but  in  about  five  minutes  every  trace  of  silver  will  have  disappeared. 
Wash  well  in  clean  water,  and  after  drying  the  hands  rub  them  over  with  a  little  glvcerin, 
diluted  one-half  with  rose-water.  This  will  soften  the  skin,  which  the  lime  is  apt  to  render 
harsh,  and  prevent  chapping  in  cold  weather. — F.  C.  PHILLIPS. 

193.  Many  persons  are  now  using  the  alkaline  development,  and  it  is  well  to  point  out 
that  if  the  ammoniacal  vapors  are  allowed  to  mingle  with  the  air  of  the  laboratory  they  pro- 
duce a  fog  on  plates  treated  by  the  wet  process  and  developed  with  the  iron  salt.     To  avoid 
this  serious  trouble,  it  is  necessary  to  ventilate  the  laboratory  after  having  used  the  alkaline 
development,  otherwise  there  is  a  risk  of  losing  the  plates  which  are  successively  treated 
there.     It  is  not  only  necessary  to  renew  the  air  as  much  as  possible,  but  to  sprinkle  a  little 
acetic  acid  on  the  floor  to  absorb  the  ammoniacal  vapors. — UNKNOWN. 

The  ventilation  that  is  necessary  is  certainly  more  than  that  which  would  be  accomplished 
by  having  two  or  three  small  openings  for  the  admission  and  exit  of  air.  Some  system 
should  be  devised  whereby  a  rapid  and  constant  change  of  air  in  these  little  apartments 
can  be  certainly  produced,  and  it  never  is  a  difficult  thing  to  accomplish.  A  tallow  candle, 
lighted  and  placed  in  a  little  flue,  or  a  small  kerosene-lamp,  in  such  a  position  that  it  will 
cause  a  current  to  pass  up  through  the  flue,  and  out  of  the  laboratory,  and  a  few  holes  at  the 
bottom,  for  the  admission  of  air,  make  a  constant  and  tolerably  rapid  current  to  pass  through 
the  room,  and  insure  a  rapid  change  of  atmosphere;  and,  certainly,  tallow  candles  and 
kerosene  are  sufficiently  cheap.  The  ways  of  securing  ventilation  are  simply  numberless, 
and  no  photographer,  with  a  little  care  of  this  sort  in  ventilating  his  rooms,  need  ever  com- 
plain of  the  harmful  effect  of  fumes  and  gases.  By  diluting  them  with  atmospheric  air  in 
10 


146  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHIC!^ 

living  at  a  ripe  old  age,  and  life  insurance  companies  consider  photog- 
raphers quite  as  good  "  risks  "  as  any  other  class,  but  too  much  care 
cannot  be  given  to  the  avoidance  of  unnecessary  inhalation  of  the  fumes 
arising  from  poisonous  chemicals.  Ventilation  and  a  frequent  airing  of  the 
dark-room  will  secure  you  from  evil  results  in  this  direction.  (See  page  92.) 
194.  There  are  other  defects,  many  of  them,  which  annoy,  but  they  can 
be  largely  avoided  by  regarding  the  following  rules :  Have  your  glass 
very  clean  ;  keep  your  bath  well  filtered  and  slightly  acid ;  let  your  col- 
lodion be  a  good  orange-yellow  color;  have  your  developer  fresh  and 
clean ;  see  that  there  are  no  splits  or  cracks  in  your  dark-room,  by  which 
white  light  is  admitted ;  see  that  your  cameras  and  plate-holders  are  in 
good  condition  and  perfectly  light-tight ;  never  allow  reflected  light  to 
enter  your  camera,  but  so  screen  your  light  that  the  direct  rays  will  fall 
on  the  sitter,  and  leave  your  camera  in  the  shade ;  never  take  out  or  de- 
velop your  plate  by  too  strong  a  light ;  if  you  use  yellow  glass  to  light 
your  dark-room,  coat  a  plate,  and  expose  it  for  three  or  four  minutes  near 
the  glass,  and  then  develop  it;  if  it  fogs,  put  a  yellow  cambric  curtain  over 
your  glass  ;  keep  your  hands  and  everything  about  you  perfectly  dean. 

abundance,  he  will  breathe  them  in  such  attenuation  that  they  will  do  no  harm. — DR.  NOR- 
MAN BRIDGE. 

194.  "Closet  speculations,"  as  I  will  term  them,  are,  perhaps,  the  most  dangerous  things 
which  can  be  thrust  forth  on  far-off  and  credulous  readers.  Of  these  we  have  ever  and  anon 
a  surfeit.  They  are,  of  all  things,  most  difficult  to  detect.  No  doubt  many  are  given  in 
good  faith,  but  there  is  a  good  deal  of  "hap-hazard  "  to  be  gone  through  before  we  arrive  at 
the  realization  of  our  hopes.  One  will  tell  you  to  a  centigramme  how  much  silver  he  dis- 
solved in  an  equally  certain  quantity  of  alcohol ;  that  it  was  heated,  etc. ;  but  he  cannot  for 
the  life  of  him  tell  you,  short  of  an  almost  unheard-of  experiment  (for  an  ordinary  photog- 
rapher), whether  every  atom  of  that  silver  nitrate  was  "  got  in."  By  the  addition  of  certain 
bromides,  chlorides,  and  iodides  (one  or  more  combined),  he  has  obtained  about  that  which 
was  necessary  to  the  successful  working  of  his  process.  Luckily  for  photographers,  the 
"chemistry  of  photography  "  is  good-natured,  and  seems  to  admit  of  a  "rule  of  thumb,"  but 
in  order  to  appreciate  this,  we  must  always  be  on  the  lookout. — A.  M.  DE  SILVA. 

LITTLE  THINGS  WORTH  LOOKING  AFTER. — Keep  the  inside  of  your  camera-box  free  from 
dust :  I  have  heard  bath  solutions  condemned  when  the  fault  was  dust  from  the  camera-box. 
Every  time  you  shut  your  ground-glass,  or  put  in  the  shield,  draw  the  slide,  or  remove  the 
shield,  you  start  a  current  of  air  that  will  put  any  quantity  of  dust  in  motion  if  it  is  in  the 
box.  Keep  your  shield  or  dark-slide  well  greased.  Be  sure  you  wipe  off  all,  only  what  goes 
well  into  the  pores  of  the  wood.  It  will  not  injure  the  working  of  any  of  your  chemicals, 
will  keep  the  shield  in  the  best  of  order,  and  will  make  one  shield  last  longer  than  twc 
would  without  it.  Lard  or  mutton  tallow  will  do. — FRANK  KOWELL. 


LESSON  I. 

RETOUCHING  THE  NEGATIVE. 

195.  THE  practice  of  retouching  the  negative  is  too  general  now  to  use 
any  argument   against  it.     Its   legitimate    object  is  to  remove    natural 
blemishes  in  the  skin,  and  to  help  to  preserve  the  half-tones  or  middle- 
tints  in  the  negative.     But  it  is  used  to  such  excess  in  many  instances  as 
to  make  the  likeness  hard  to  discern,  and  to  utterly  destroy  the  delicate 
work  of  the  manipulator.     There  is  a  mechanical  sort  of  retouching,  and 
there  is  an  artistic  one,  too.     Strive  always  after  the  latter. 

196.  Retouching  the  negative  consists  in  working  upon  the  collodion 

195.  RETOUCHING. — I  think  the  practice  of  retouching  the  negative  a  sad  thing  for  pho- 
tography.    It  is  impossible,  for  even  very  capable  artists,  to  rival  or  improve  the  delicate, 
almost  mysterious,  gradations  of  the  photograph.     Magnify  the  photographic  rendering  of, 
say,  the  human  eye,  with  a  strong  lens,  and  it  is  found  to  be  almost  startling  in  its  marvel- 
lous truth.     Magnify  the  retouched  image,  and  it  will  look  like  coarse  deformity.     It  ceases 
to  be  true.    I  have  sometimes  seen  a  touched  photograph  which  looked  very  nice,  but  it  pos- 
sessed no  interest  for  me ;  I  knew  it  could  not  be  trusted.'  I  have  been  charged  with  sophis- 
ticating photographs  because  I  combined  and  masked  and  sunned  prints.     But  there  is  a 
great  distinction  between  suppressing  and  adding;  I  never  added.     I  stopped  out  portions 
of  the  negative  which  I  did  not  require  to  form  my  picture  ;  I  sunned  down  that  which  was 
obtrusive,  and  where  one  negative  would  not  serve,  I  used  two  or  more,  joining  them  with 
as  much  truth  as  I  could.     But  I  never  attempted  to  improve  negatives.     I  never  believed 
that  I  could  draw  better  or  more  truly  than  nature.    I  consider  a  touched  photograph  spoiled 
for  every  purpose. — 0.  G.  REJLANDER. 

There  are  many  negatives  taken  that  require  very  little,  if  any,  retouching.  The  retouch- 
ing-frame, however,  is  the  best  place  to  determine  that,  and  consequently  I  take  my  negatives 
there  for  examination.  There  are  three  points  that  can  be  made  here  upon  this  subject:  1. 
Are  there  skin  blotches  that  would  make  the  print  unpleasant,  if  left  as  they  appear  upon 
the  negative?  If  there  are,  remove  or  soften  them.  2  Has  some  unfortunate  circumstance 
produced  more  or  less  holes  in  it?  If  so,  stop  them  up.  3.  Were  you  unfortunate  enough 
to  get  too  strong  a  contrast  between  the  lights  and  shades  ?  If  so,  blend  them.  These  are 
the  three  principal  points  to  be  considered. — I.  B.  WEBSTER. 

196.  The  following  formula  I  find  of  the  best  proportions: 

Best  Orange  Shellac  in  flakes, ........       2  ounces. 

Carbonate  of  Ammonia,  pure  crystals,     ......       4       " 

Soft  Water,  clein, 24       " 

Quantity  when  finished  to  be  sixteen  ounces. 

(  147) 


148  WILSON'S    PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

film  with  pencil  and  color,  after  first  securing  a  "  tooth  "  or  a  "  biting  " 
surface  for  them  by  the  application  of  a  varnish,  or  by  rubbing,  in  order 
to  modify  the  image  to  suit  the  ideas  of  the  artist  and  his  patron  as  to 
beauty  of  result.  It  is  a  safe  process,  if  the  one  practising  it  knows  what 
it  is  desirable  to  produce.  A  rough  proof  from  the  untouched  negative 
should  be  at  hand  as  a  guide,  and  the  greatest  care  taken  not  to  alter  the 
likeness. 

197.  Those  who  have  had  no  practice  in  this  delicate  department  of 
our  art,  should  experiment  upon  useless  negatives  until  the  hand  be- 
comes accustomed  to  giving  a  refined  touch  and  the  taste  is  educated  to 

Heat  the  water  in  a  tin  vessel,  of  a  capacity  of  at  least  one  gallon,  with  a  convenient  handle 
attached,  to  facilitate  quickly  removing  from  the  fire  when  inclined  to  froth  over.  When 
near  boiling,  add  the  ammonia  crystals  slowly,  as  a  fierce  ebullition  will  take  place;  when 
nearly  dissolved,  add  the  shellac  and  stir  rapidly  to  keep  the  shellac  from  running  together; 
continue  the  boiling  until  all  is  dissolved,  which  will  require  about  twenty  minutes.  Don't 
get  impatient  and  thrpw  in  more  ammonia,  because  it  is  not  necessary,  unless  the  shellac  is 
allowed  to  run  together,  and  the  ammonia  should  be  evaporated  by  long  boiling ;  stir  rapidly 
and  boil  quickly.  Continue  the  boiling  until  the  hot  solution  can  be  poured  into  a  tin  pint 
measure.  The  time  usually  required  for  the  whole  operation  is  half  an  hour.  Let  the 
solution  remain  in  the  measure  until  cold,  say  over  night,  when  there  will  be  a  scum  on  top, 
which  remove;  then  filter,  and  it  will  be  of  the  right  consistency  for  use.  Procure  two 
wide-mouth  pouring-bottles,  but  use  no  stoppers  or  coverings,  as  in  removing  them  they 
will  dislodge  dry  scales  from  the  mouth  of  the  bottle,  which  will  flow  upon  the  negative. 
Label  them  No.  1  and  No.  2;  the  use  of  No.  1,  first,  is  to  avoid  the  dilution  of  No.  2,  or 
final  flow,  which  should  be  retained  at  a  proper  consistency,  for  retouching  upon  it  will  need 
an  occasional  filtering,  and  even  with  two  bottles  will  in  time  become  too  much  diluted, 
when  it  will  be  necessary  to  boil  a  little.  If  in  boiling  it  becomes  of  a  milky  color,  it  is  a 
•sign  of  precipitation  of  the  shellac.  Kemedy,  throw  in  a  small  lump  of  ammonia,  when  it  will 
soon  assume  a  dark  cherry  color.  Always  flow  the  negative  while  wet. — C.  M  FRENCH. 

Take  one  ounce  of  turpentine  and  add  twenty  drops  of  balsam  of  fir,  and  you  will  have  a 
retouching  varnish  putting  benzine  clean  out  of  sight.  Rub  on  the  part  you  wish  to  retouch 
with  a  piece  of  cotton,  then  with  another  piece  of  cotton  rub  off  the  surplus  moisture,  allow 
a  moment  to  dry,  and  rub  again,  and  a  nice  retouching  surface  will  be  the  result. — K.  W. 
DAWSON. 

197.  Let  us  take  a  negative  as  an  example.  It  is,  in  consequence  of  under-exposure,  out 
of  harmony ;  the  scale  of  tones  is  broken.  Now,  what  is  wanted  is  to  supply,  with  color 
skilfully  applied,  the  tones  missing.  In  the  first  place,  then,  commencing  with  the  lights, 
I  find  there  are  no  high-lights ;  the  lights  all  over  the  face  have  spread  too  much,  and  a  flat 
tint  half  across  the  face  is  all  there  is,  where  there  should  be 'at  least  three  tints  or  tones. 
The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  put  on  the  highest  lights.  These  are  upon  the  forehead,  the 
nose,  and  chin  ;  these  must  be  made  two  tints  deeper,  that  is,  more  opaque  than  the  sur- 
rounding parts.  Next,  work  near  these  lights,  gradually  up  to  them,*but  still  leaving  them 
one  tint  higher  than  the  color  you  are  putting  on,  and,  working  from  them,  gradually  blend 


KETOUCHING    THE    NEGATIVE.  149 

a  degree  that  will  guard  against  excess.  First  remove  the  worst  blem- 
ishes, and  then  very  carefully,  indeed,  attack  the  minor  ones,  referring 
frequently  to  your  proof.  Both  stippling  and  hatching  may  be  used, 
according  to  your  own  feeling  in  the  matter. 

198.  Never  allow  yourself  to  grow  into  the  habit  of  careless  manipu- 
lation with  the  expectancy  of  "  making  it  up  "  in  retouching.  Make  the 
very  best  negative  you  canjirst,  and  then  improve  its  delicacy  by  retouch- 

the  color  into  the  tint  of  the  negative.  By  this  means  there  have  been  two  tones  added 
to  the  scale.  Now,  taking  the  shadows,  I  find  they  are  too  much  spread,  and  come  too 
abruptly  up  to  the  lights;  in  fact,  that  numbers  four,  five,  and  six  of  the  scale  are  missing. 
Now,  working  from  the  lights,  and  using  less  color  as  I  get  nearer  the  deepest  shadow, 
I  supply  the  tones  missing.  I  have  now  a  negative  that  will  be  perfect  both  in  harmony 
and  gradation. 

Another  negative  has  been  over-exposed,  and  the  print  wants  depth  and  vigor.  As  we 
cannot  take  out  shadows,  we  must  add  color,  to  build  up  the  lights  to  sufficient  strength  to 
allow  the  shadows  to  print  deep  enough.  This  is  done  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  former 
case,  putting  on  the  highest  lights  very  strong  and  working  from  them. 

And  now  a  word  of  caution  :  Do  not  use  much  gum  in  the  color;  if  possible  do  without  it 
altogether,  for  if  gum  is  used,  and  the  printer  is  not  very  careful,  the  silver  on  the  face  of  the 
paper  will  come  off  upon  the  retouching,  and,  darkening  with  every  exposure,  will  eventually 
stop  the  light  out  altogether,  and  white  spots  upon  the  face  are  the  consequence.  This  can 
be  avoided  by  warming  the  negative  and  paper  before  putting  them  together. — GEORGE 
CROUGHTON. 

If  there  is  a  crooked  nose,  try  and  straighten  it  by  making  the  high-light  appear  as  it 
would  if  the  nose  were  straight;  cut  the  corners  of  the  mouth  ;  lighten  the  shadow  under 
the  eyes  ;  fill  up  the  sunken  cheeks  ;  modify  any  unfortunate  wrinkles  ;  sharpen  the  eyes  by 
intensifying  the  white  and  drawing  the  line  of  the  upper  and  lower  lids.  Now  proceed  to 
smooth  the  complexion,  but  be  careful  not  to  smooth  all  the  roundness  out  of  the  picture  ; 
see  that  you  do  not  reduce  the  high-lights  too  much  by  bringing  up  the  shadows  and  half- 
tones. But  if  there  appears  to  be  a  flattening  of  the  face,  judici  msly  intensify  the  high- 
lights ;  avoid,  of  course,  too  great  a  distribution  of  the  high-lights,  which  will  give  the  pic- 
ture a  glistening  or  choppy  effect.  One  of  the  greatest  things  in  retouching,  and  one  that 
requires  considerable  practice  to  attain,  is  an  artistic  touch.  By  this  I  mean  so  manipula- 
ting the  pencil  as  to  produce  that  transparent  and  peachy  texture  which  may  be  observed  in 
a  fine  water-color  or  india-ink  picture.  This  effect  is  produced  by  a  series  of  hatches  done 
in  a  perfectly  true  and  free  manner,  each  stroke  of  the  pencil  being  put  exactly  where  it  be- 
longs, and  not  overlapping  its  neighbor,  and  producing  that  spotty  and  unquiet  effect  so  ob- 
jectionable to  the  educated  eye.  Do  not  take  the  pencil,  and  start  in  with  the  purpose  of 
laboriously  stippling  the  whole  negative,  regardless  of  what  comes  in  the  way,  whether  it 
be  light  or  shadow,  so  that  the  picture  comes  out  as  if  it  had  been  sand-papered.  Such  a 
manner  of  working  produces  nothing  but  a  tame  and  insipid  effect,  and  has  been  the  cause 
of  most  of  the  objections  to  retouching. — N.  H.  BUSEY. 

198.  Retouching  cannot  produce  a  perfect  picture  from  a  really  bad  negative;  and  yet, 
nevertheless,  there  are  photographers  who,  before  retouching  was  generally  used,  worked 


150  WILSON'S    PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

ing.  For  such  purposes  only  should  this  power  be  used.  Retouching  is 
not  "  making  smooth."  You  want  a  delicate  play  of  half-tone,  light,  and 
shade  preserved  over  the  face,  and  no  retouching  should  ever  be  allowed 
to  cover  it  up. 

199.  The  appliances  needed  are  a  retouching-frame,  pencils,  brushes, 
some  crimson-lake  and  Prussian  blue  color,  a  cake  of  Grihon's  "Opaque," 
a  brush  for  each  of  these,  and  a  magnify  ing-glass.  With  their  judicious 
use  by  careful  hands,  and  with  feeling  for  the  work,  negatives  can  gen- 
erally be  helped  in  their  printing  qualities  to  a  pleasing  degree.  They 
may  also  be  spoiled  to  a  hopeless  degree,  if  the  appliances  are  not  care- 
fully used. 

with  the  greatest  ambition  to  produce  the  very  best  work,  have  now  become  careless,  "  as  all 
that  can  be  helped  by  retouching.'11  To  such,  instead  of  improvement,  it  is  a  drawback,  and 
they  must  reform,  or  eventually  be  superseded  by  the  more  zealous  and  careful  ones  of  the 
craft.  A  competent  retoucher  should  be  acquainted  with  the  general  anatomical  features  of 
the  face,  a  slight  knowledge  of  drawing  at  least,  and  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  effect 
of  light  and  shade,  that  when  working,  none  of  those  soft  shades  and  little  wrinkles  which 
characterize  the  face  are  erased,  thereby  destroying  the  likeness,  and  causing  the  picture  to 
appear  flat.  In  working  up  a  negative,  never  overdo  it.  This  is  the  greatest  mistake,  and 
cno  generally  practised ;  the  face  in  such  work  appearing  like  the  smooth,  stretched  head  of 
a  drum,  or  in  disagreeable  splotches,  termed  chalky.  Another  method  is  to  produce  what  is 
called  eggshell  surface,  the  whole  appearing  as  speckled  as  the  surface  of  a  guinea-egg  re- 
duced. This  is  the  most  objectionable,  as  it  entirely  misrepresents  the  surface  of  the  skin,  and 
yet  some  artists  take  special  pains  to  produce  such  pictures,  which,  to  any  one  of  artistic  taste, 
must  seem  ridiculous.  The  right  manner  is  to  remove  glaring  imperfections,  or  hard  shadows, 
and  to  regulate  disagreeable  features  in  such  a  manner  that  the  marks  of  the  pencil  do  not 
show  in  strokes  or  dots  on  the  finished  print. — EGBERT  MORGENEIER. 

199.  I  have  at  hand  a  cake  of  water-color,  called  neutral  tint.  Upon  a  piece  of  china 
(porcelain)  plate  drop  about  two  drops  of  clean  water.  Now  take  the  cake  between  the 
thumb  and  finger  and  rub  one  end  of  said  cake  a  very  short  time  in  those  drops  of  water, 
and  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  color  will  be  deposited  upon  the  white  plate  to  last  a  long 
time.  Do  not  attempt  to  use  it  until  the  water  has  dried  out  of  it,  which  consumes  very 
little  time.  Now  provide  yourself  with  a  two-ounce  wide-mouth  bottle ;  half  fill  it  with 
water,  and  set  it  upon  the  table  near  the  white  plate  with  color  on  it.  You  will  also  need 
two  carnel's-hair  pencils,  with  long  handles,  and  a  cake  of  Gihon's  "Opaque."  Let's  see  now; 
is  there  anything  else  needed?  Yes,  you  need  a  painter's  rest-stick.  To  do  this  well,  your 
hand  must  be  perfectly  steady,  and  at  the  same  time  flexible.  Y,ou  must  have  a  stick  of 
some  sort,  and  this  is  the  best. — I.  B.  WEBSTER. 

With  the  articles  that  I  have  mentioned,  first-class  touching  can  be  done  by  care  and 
patient  practice.  One  great  advantage  of  the  water-color  over  the  pencil  is  the  facility  with 
which  the  work  can  be  undone  if  riot  satisfactory  in  the  first,  second,  or  even  the  tenth  effort. 
In  some  cases  the  pencil  is  good,  especially  if  there  is  very  little  to  be  done.  Even  when 
using  the  pencil,  do  not  use  any  modern  means  recommended  to  roughen  up  the  surface  of  it 


RETOUCHING    THE    NEGATIVE.  151 

200.  As  the  retoucher  progresses,  if  he  thinks,  he  will  discover  many 
methods  of  doing  this  delicate  work  which  will  serve  him  to  good  pur- 
pose. Inspiration  comes  in  here,  too,  and  the  "  learning  how  "  will  never 
end,  because  no  two  negatives  require  the  same  treatment  exactly. 
Study  your  negative  well  "before  you  begin.  Give  it  credit  for  all  the  good 
there  is  in  it,  and  then  be  careful  you  don't  rob  it  in  the  least. 

to  what  is  termed  tooth.  All  this  can  be  effectually  overcome  by  first  whittling  the  pencil 
down  to  a  long  slender  point,  and  finishing  by  means  of  sand-paper.  "Whenever  the  pencil 
fails  to  deposit  on  the  negative  as  required,  pass  it  over  the  sand-paper  a  time  or  two,  and  it 
goes  off  all  right  again.  Rather  a  hard  pencil  does  better  in  my  hands  than  a  soft  one. 
This,  however,  depends  somewhat  upon  use.  The  practice,  however,  of  disturbing  the 
varnish  by  the  use  of  pumice-stone,  fish-bone,  emery,  etc  ,  to  secure  tooth,  is  too  dangerous 
to  be  successful.  I  would  therefore  advise  you  not  to  practise  it.  When  the  skin  blotches 
are  too  deep  to  remove  with  the  pencil,  then  the  neutral  tint  and  brush  come  in  first-rate. — 
I.  B.  WEBSTER. 

In  my  practice  I  have  found  the  patent  pencil  with  movable  leads,  made  by  Faber,  the 
best  for  retouching,  as  the  lead  is  of  very  fine  quality  and  perfectly  free  from  grit ;  they  are 
also  much  more  convenient  than  the  ordinary  lead-pencil,  as  they  do  not  require  to  be 
sharpened.  I  have  tried  metallic  and  most  every  other  kind  of  pencil,  but  find  these  the 
best.  A  pretty  hard  lead  is  best  for  fine  work  on  small  heads,  but  for  a  large  head,  where 
the  strokes  are  to  be  bold,  a  softer  lead  is  required.  As  a  general  thing,  it  is  not  necessary  to 
roughen  the  surface  of  a  negative,  as  the  varnish  will  have  sufficient  tooth  to  take  the  pencil ; 
but  when  the  surface  is  too  smooth,  or  it  is  necessary  to  put  a  great  deal  of  heavy  retouch- 
ing upon  a  negative^  pulverized  pumice  will  be  found  to  be  very  useful ;  just  dip  the  finger 
into  the  pumice,  knock  the  loose  powder  back  into  the  box,  and  gently  rub  the  finger  over 
the  part  of  the  negative  required  to  be  roughened  ;  this  will  be  all  that  is  necessary  in  most 
cases.  Such  things  as  grit-varnish,  etc.,  are  not  only  of  no  service,  but  decidedly  detrimental, 
making  too  rough  a  surface  entirely.  The  retouching-frames  sold  by  the  stock-dealers  are 
very  useful,  and  are  all  that  is  required ;  but  I  prefer  to  substitute  for  the  mirror  a  piece  of 
white  cardboard,  and  to  remove  the  ground-glass  from  the  frame,  which  gives  a  soft,  agree- 
able light  that  does  not  in  the  least  dazzle  the  eyes.  If  you  have  a  ground-glass  window 
to  work  by,  the  mirror  will  do.  It  is  much  better  to  work  in  a  darkened  room  where  there 
is  no  other  light  than  that  which  comes  through  the  negative  from  the  reflector.  As  far  as 
any  definite  instructions  can  be  given,  the  rest  depends  upon  skill  and  artistic  taste. — N.  H. 

BUSEY. 

200.  It  was  also  in  Scotland  that  I  saw  a  very  good  dodge  for  saving  time  in  retouching. 
On  the  film  side  of  the  negative  was  strained  a  piece  of  ordinary  tracing-paper;  the  paper 
was  slightly  dampened,  and  the  edges  being  gummed,  it  was  laid  on  the  face  of  the  negative 
and  let  dry  ;  when  dry  it  was  strained  quite  tight,  and  so  interposed  a  thickness  of  tracing- 
paper  between  the  sensitive  paper  and  the  negative,  which  considerably  softened  freckles  and 
other  accidental  markings,  and  gave  a  good  surface  for  working  in  the  high-lights,  etc.  I 
have  tried  this  dodge  for  enlarged  negatives,  and  can  highly  recommend  it. — GEORGE 
CROUGHTON. 

A  friend  communicated  to  me  a  simple  and  very  good  way  of  sharpening  the  lead-pencil 


152  WILSON'S   PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

201.  The  photographer  who  has  not  enough  retouching  of  negatives 
to  do  to  employ  a  retoucher  steadily,  will  find  a  retouching-machine  to 
help  him  over  the  most  time-taking  portions  of  the  work,  the  fine  finish^ 
ing  only,  requiring  the  labor  of  his  hands.     There  are  various  kinds  of 
these  advertised  by  the  dealers.     They  are  useful  and  helpful. 

202.  Books  and  chapters  have  been  written  upon  this  subject,  and  the 
one  who  desires  to  become  an  accomplished  retoucher,  or  doctor  of  neg- 

used  in  retouching;  and  I  find  that  a  fine  needle-point  can  be  made  by  it  in  a  moment. 
Take  a  small  piece  of  ground-glass  and  moisten  a  place  sufficiently  large,  and  grind  the  lead 
on  it  by  rubbing  lightly  endwise  (not  sidewise,  as  that  would  be  likely  to  break  it),  while 
turning  the  pencil  so  as  to  grind  the  sides  equally. — FRANK  A.  MORRELL. 

Here  is  the  method  I  have  adopted  :  Take  a  two-ounce  glass  meas.ure,  fill  it  with  old  bath 
solution  (the  strength  is  a  matter  of  no  moment);  put  in  next  a  little  pyrogallic  acid — the 
exact  amount,  so  that  you  put  in  enough,  does  not  matter  ;  the  result  is  the  immediate  pre- 
cipitation of  silver.  In  a  few  minutes  stir  the  whole  well  up,  and  throw  it  upon  a  filter ; 
when  the  liquor  has  run  through,  fill  up  the  filter  again  with  water;  repeat  this  two  or  three 
times,  then  set  the  filter  aside.  In  a  day  or  so,  when  dry,  carefully  remove  the  powder  from 
the  filter  by  some  little  scraping  instrument.  Put  it  away  for  future  use.  A  small  portion 
of  this  is  prepared  for  use  at  a  time  by  being  ground  on  the  palette  with  a  little  gum-water; 
the  less  the  better.  I  work  the  pigment  with  a  knife,  giving  a  gentle  circular  motion,  and 
keeping  it  up  till  the  whole  dries ;  the  gradual  thickening  of  the  gum  solution  as  the  water 
evaporates  seems  to  assist  in  breaking  up  the  particles  to  an  extreme  state  of  fineness.  This 
pigment  can  be  used  with  water  in  the  usual  way;  but  I  think  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
suck  the  brush,  as  a  daily  dose  (people  who  retouch  negatives  at  all  generally  do  so  every 
day,  I  suppose)  of  silver  in  a  state  of  fine  powder  might  lead  to  serious  consequences. — 
STELLAR  POLARIS. 

201 .  Of  the  varied  motions  of  a  retouching-machine  an  actual  drawing  by  the  machines  has 
been  made.     The  annexed  cut  shows  a  very  much  enlarged  copy  of  such  a  drawing.     1  is 
the  "horizontal;"  2,  the  "perpendicular;"  3,  the  "diagno-horizontal;"  and  4,  the  "diagno- 
perpendicular"  motion,  all  at  the  highest  speed,  which,  with  the  fact  that  these  strokes  are 

greatly  magnified,  accounts  for  the  coarseness 
of  the  drawing.  If  the  drawing  represented 
the  actual  size  of  the  strokes  secured  by  the 
machine,  they  would  be  so  fine  the  eye  could 
not  see  the  difference.  In  number  one  the 
greatest  variations  are  shown  purposely,  be- 
cause it  must  be  remembered  that,  although 
the  negative  is  moved  by  the  machine  to  meet 

the  pencil-point  whenever  it  is  applied  by  the  hand,  the  hand  controls  the  size  and  form  of 

the  touch. 

202.  On  what  principle  is  the  necessity  of  retouching  based  ?     Notwithstanding  skilful 
lighting,   posing,  and   chemical   manipulations,   without   exception  the  result  obtained  is 
always  such  that  we  are  forced  to  reduce  the  too  hard,  troublesome  contrasts  formed  by  the 
impurity  of  the  skin,  such  as  freckles,  scars,  and  other  unpleasant  features,  which,  by  an 


RETOUCHING   THE    NEGATIVE.  153 

atives,  will  do  well  to  gather  all  the  hints  he  can.  In  the  hands  of  a 
skilled  artist,  the  needle-point,  the  brush,  the  gas-flame,  and  smoke  will 
all  be  found  useful  appliances.  In  all  cases,  however,  be  merciful  in  your 
handling  of  a  negative  that  is  full  of  good  printing  qualities,  before  you 
proceed  to — make  it  worse. 

ordinary  glance  at  the  subject,  are  scarcely  perceptible  or  wholly  unnoticed.  Blemishes, 
also,  may  occur  in  other  parts  of  the  negative  which  call  retouching  into  requisition. — 

J.  W.  MORGENEIER. 

Retouching  is  misunderstood  entirely.  A  negative  being  made,  when  the  proof  is  pro- 
duced it  shows  wrinkles,  it  shows  spots,  it  shows  lights  too  strong,  or  shades  too  deep. 
"Well,  we  are  going  to  retouch  the  negative  properly.  Now,  here  is  a  little  line  or  mark 
that  shows  you  the  place  of  a  bone ;  these  little  lines,  if  the  person  does  not  understand  any- 
thing about  bones,  he  will  destroy,  and  the  bone  is  gone.  Here  is  a  little  mark,  a  little  light 
which  forms  a  dimple  in  the  cheeks  or  in  the  hand,  he  will  destroy  that.  Suppose  it  is  a 
little  strong  and  ought  to  be  subdued,  he  destroys  it  entirely,  and  that  little  dimple  is  gone, 
which  is  one  of  the  beauties  of  the  face.  Well,  the  same  of  the  nose.  I  have  photographs 
brought  to  me  of  which  the  nose  is  entirely  destroyed.  There  is  no  bridge  to  it;  there  is 
no  bone  in  it ;  it  is  entirely  destroyed ;  it  is  a  person  without  a  bridge  to  his  nose,  an  empty 
line  without  any  significance. — D.  C.  FABRONIUS. 

In  conclusion,  I  would  remark  that  none  but  those  who  have  received  and  benefited  by 
an  artistic  education,  improved  by  constant  practice,  can  hope  to  emulate  the  masterly  ex- 
amples to  be  found  in  the  works  of  Reutlinger,  etc.  ;  such  perfection  can  only  be  achieved 
by  the  experienced  miniature  painter,  who,  more  than  any  other,  should  possess  a  keen  ap- 
preciation of  the  value  of  every  touch.  There  is  still  this  to  be  borne  in  mind,  that  however 
unskilled  a  person  may  be  in  the  use  of  either  brush  or  pencil,  if  he  but  bring  to  his  task  an 
earnest  and  careful  desire,  he  cannot  fail  to  be  both  surprised  and  gratified  with  the  amount 
of  improvement  he  will  be  enabled  to  effect.  Let  it  always  be  remembered,  however,  that 
the  object  of  touching  should  be  to  remove  such  defects  as  are  incident  to  the  limited  capacity 
of  photography  in  rendering  color,  or  such  as  are  merely  temporary  blemishes  in  the  sitter; 
and  in  no  case  to  smooth  away  the  truth  of  nature. — WILLIAM  MAYLAND. 

Two  common  errors  with  beginners  must  be  particularly  guarded  against,  that  of  marking 
the  eyelashes  too  strongly  and  that  of  obliterating  them  completely,  making  the  eye  look  as 
if  it  had  been  singed.  The  upper  edge  of  the  lash  must  be  softened  into  the  lid,  and  the 
lower  edge  must  melt  imperceptibly  into  the  shadows  which  it  casts  upon  the  orb  beneath  it. 
Under  the  outward  extremity  of  the  lash  the  thickness  of  the  lid  is  perceptible  ;  this  must 
be  represented  as  it  is  seen,  that  is,  distinct  from  the  lash  and  tender  in  tone.  The  form 
assumed  by  the  pupil  of  the  eye  is,  of  course,  governed  by  the  relative  position  of  the  head — 
round  in  full-face  portraits  and  oval  in  profile,  intermediate  forms  with  half  profile,  three- 
quarter  face,  etc.  These  positions  in  turn  control  the  lighting  of  the  eye. — J.  P.  OURDAN. 


LESSON    J. 

THE     ULASS     STUDIO. 

203.  IN  order  to  secure  the  best  effects  in  portraiture,  it  is  necessary  to 
have  a  covered  enclosure  free  from  the  action  of  the  elements,  and  where 
the  light  may  be  controlled  to  suit  the  purpose.  Such  an  enclosure  is 
called  a  "  glass  studio  "  or  "  skylight,"  The  former,  because  it  is  neces- 
sary that  it  should  be  of  glass  in  order  to  admit  the  light,  and  as  the 
work-room  where  the  painter  produces  his  effects  is  called  a  studio,  so  is 
this,  the  work-room  of  the  photographer,  called  the  studio.  The  latter 
name  is  given  because  it  must,  in  order  to  be  properly  lighted,  be  erected 
so  near  the  sky  that  no  surrounding  objects  can  interfere  with  the  supply 
of  light  from  the  right  direction.  In  constructing  photographic  studios, 
more  gross  and  expensive  blunders  have  been  made,  probably,  than  in 
any  other  photographic  direction.  Some  of  the  wildest  theories  have 
been  followed  by  our  best  photographers  in  all  countries,  regardless  of 
expense,  in  this  line,  and  there  are  countless  wrecks  lying  about  as  useless 

203.  Now  do  not  be  deluded  with  the  idea  that,  whenever  you  see  a  good  photographic 
effect,  it  is  all  owing  to  the  light.  It  is  not  so.  What  I  mean  is,  that  a  picture  may  be 
good,  and  yet  be  made  in  a  very  badly  constructed  light,  and  that  the  construction  of  the 
light  is  not  the  only  thing  to  consider  when  you  desire  to  make  a  good  picture.  I  have  seen 
men  have  splendidly  constructed  studios,  without  one  idea  as  to  the  best  way  of  working 
them.  I  have  seen  men  working  most  beautiful  results  in  most  inconvenient  and  cramped 
up  places.  Thus  you  will  perceive  that  the  "light"  is  only  one  means  of  assistance  in 
securing  the  best  results.  So,  when  you  examine  good  work  again,  you  must  not  only  say, 
"His  light  is  better  than  mine,"  but  he  has  more  feeling,  more  brains  than  I,  together  with 
better  manipulative  skill,  and  I  must  think  how  I  may  reach  up  to  him. — OLD  ARGENTUM. 

I  will  say  here  in  the  beginning  that  a  skilful  artist,  who  knows  how  to  use  his  eyes  and 
how  to  judge  of  the  distribution  of  light  on  his  model,  will  know  how  to  turn  out  a  good 
picture  even  if  the  atelier  should  be  faulty  in  its  construction.  The  cook  of  our  old  Fritz,  the 
hero  king  of  the  last  century — and  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  present  "  Our  Fritz,"  who 
is  his  great-grandchild — made  a  splendid  fricassee  from  an  old  kid  glove,  but  this  does  not 
prove,  by  any  means,  that  an  old  kid  glove  is  the  best  material  for  making  a  good  fricassee 
but  it  proves  the  excellence  of  the  cook.  In  Germany  we  have  generally  longer  glass-houses 
than  in  America,  and  I  give  the  preference  to  such,  for  we  can  shorten  them,  at  any  time  by 
curtains,  but  it  is  very  difficult  to  lengthen  a  glass-house  which  is  too  short. — DR.  H.  VOGKL 
(  154) 


THE    GLASS    STUDIO.  155 

as  a  defunct  oil-well.  There  should  be  no  difficulty  in  the  matter  at  all, 
however,  though  indeed  there  are  fewer  mistakes  made  now  than  there 
used  to  be.  This  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the  principles  govern- 
ing studio  construction  are  better  understood  of  late  years  than  formerly. 

204.  In  choosing  a  locality  for  a  studio,  the  first  consideration  is  the 
source  of  the  light  supply.     This  should,  if  possible,  come  mainly  from 
the  north.     A  clear  top-light  is  needed  at  an  angle  of  about  forty-five 
degrees,  and  a  side-light,  vertical,  or  nearly  so,  running  from  the  lowest 
point  of  the  top-light  to  within  say  two  feet  of  the  floor.     This  side- 
light is  best  also  towards  the  north,  but  answers  well  a  good  part  of  the 
day  if  it  be  on  the  east  or  west  side  of  the  building,  or  both.     All  these 
should  be  clear  from  shadows  or  reflections  thrown  by  other  buildings, 
for  the  obvious  reason  that  any  such  interference  would  cause  annoyance 
in  the  management  of  the  light. 

205.  The  size,  form,  and  direction  are  largely  governed  by  the  site  of 
the  studio,  and  as  photographers  are  usually  dependent  upon  the  altera- 
tions made  in  buildings  for  them,  they  must  make  the  best  of  their  re- 
sources.    After  all,  it  is  vastly  more  in  the  management  of  the  studio 
you  have  to  operate  in  than  in  its  construction.     It  has  been  impossible 

204.  I  believe  that  every  photographer  will  admit  that  a  northern  exposure,  free  and 
unobstructed,  is  the  most  desirable,  because  the  light  is  more  uniform,  consequently  it  is  more 
easily  managed.      Still,  an  east,  west,  or  south  light  sometimes  has  a 

decided  advantage.  An  east  light  for  early,  a  west  light  for  late,  and 
a  south  light  for  dark  weather.  My  own  experience  proves  that  pho- 
tographers generally  have  to  take  the  best  they  can  get,  and  make  the 
most  of  it.  But  there  are  others  who  might  have  something  better, 
if  they  only  know  what  they  really  ought  to  have.  I  have  seen 
some  outrageously  defective  lights,  when  it  was  simply  the  fault  of  the 
liners  (see  Fig.  40).  Here  was  originally  a  passable  side-light,  western 
exposure,  with  an  8x8  feet  skylight,  flat  on  the  roof.  Now  this  was 
not  so  dreadful  bad,  but  the  artist  concluded  that  he  must  "go  for  a 
northern  exposure,"  with  the  result  as  you  see.  Now,  he  might  about 
as  well  have  set  his  "patients"  in  an  old-fashioned  chimney-corner, 
depending  upon  what  light  came  down  the  chimney.  Of  course,  the 
side-light  took  off  some  of  the  deep  shadow  under  the  eyebrow,  nose,  and  chin,  and  the 
reflectors  "countered"  on  the  other  side;  still,  so  many  cross-rays  put  goggles  on  all  except 
"pap"  eyes,  and  the  best  results  obtainable  were  unartistic,  because  there  was  no  harmony 
of  light  and  shadow. — E.  Z.  WEBSTER. 

205.  Here  is  the  most  common  form  of  skylight  (in  the  Eastern  States),  but  it  is  by  far  the 
most  expensive,  costing  twice  or  three  times  as  much,  and  not  one  whit  better  than  a  plain 
flat  sash,  laid  out  at  an  angle  sufficient  to  insure  the  rapid  passing  off  of  the  rain.       Throe 


156 


WILSON'S    PHOTOGKAPHICS. 


FIG.  41. 


to  secure  good  effects  of  light  and  shade  in  some  of  the  most  expensively 
constructed  studios,  while  they  have  heen  "  managed  "  in  some  which 
seem  to  he  the  most  simple  and  hopeless  in  every  way. 

206.  The  glazing  of  the  glass  portions  is  of  considerable  importance. 
The  brand  of  glass  known  as  the  "  best  double-thick  American  "  is  suit- 
able, though  some  give  preference  to  heavy  ribbed  or  corrugated  "sky- 
light" glass.  The  glass  being  chosen,  and  leakage  provided  against,  the 
next  thing  to  give  attention  to,  is  the  management  of  the  light  which  enters. 

advantages  have  been  claimed  for  this  plan .  1st.  Greater  strength.  2d.  Less  leakage. 
3d.  More  light.  The  first  claim  may  be  tenable,  although  the  extra  weight  of  glass  vitiates 

the  claim.  The  second  claim  holds  good  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, because  the  steepness  of  the  pitch  overcomes  some 
of  the  back-flow  of  the  water.— E.  Z.  WEBSTER. 

In  the  New  England  States,  what  is  called  a  "cone" 
light  is  used  considerably.  A  square  hole  is  cut  in  the 
roof,  and  an  elevated  square  cone  fitted  into  it,  glazed  at 
the  top  and  sides,  varying  in  height,  and  the  roof  slanting 
both  ways.  By  means  of  such  a  construction  the  light 
floods  into  the  room  in  a  diffused  state,  and  the  operator 
must  work  all  around  the  room  underneath  it,  shifting  his 
backgrounds  and  accessories  several  times  during  the  day, 
in  order  to  escape  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  There  is  such  a  thing  as  getting  used  to 
such  a  light,  but  I  could  not  be  persuaded  to  work  in  one  unless  I  had  to  do  it. — OLD 
ARGENTUM. 

This  is  a  drawing  of  a  much  better  light ;  and,  in  fact,  for  some  styles  of  work  it  is  good 
enough.     Still,  exactly  the  same  results  and  effects  would  have  been  produced  if  the  light 
had  been  laid  flat  upon  the  roof  and  down  the  side  of  the  build- 
ing, thereby  saving  the  disfigurement  of  the  house,  and  also  of  the 
room. — E.  Z.  WEBSTER. 

206.  In  procuring  glass  for  skylights,  the  photographer  who 
would  provide  against  hailstones  and  accidents  should  purchase 
glass  of  double  thickness,  or  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  thick ; 
although  the  single,  of  about  one-twdfth,  will  stand  all  ordinary 
usage  very  well.  The  second  or  third  quality  will  answer  as  well 
as  the  first,  as  the  slight  imperfections  which  they  contain  will  not 
interfere  with  the  passage  of  the  rays  of  light.  In  very  bright 
days,  I  notice  that  our  artists  have  sometimes  an  excess  of  light, 
which  they  shut  off  by  means  of  curtains  or  screens.  But  in  a  very  dark  day,  when  they 
need  all  the  light  they  can  obtain,  it  is  highly  necessary  that  the  glass  should  not  be  of  a 
dark  color.  When  we  speak  of  the  color  of  colorless  glass,  we  mean  that  which  is  perceived 
in  looking  at  a  piece  through  its  edge.  The  color  should  be  of  a  light-green  or  bluish-green, 
and  it  should  be  of  a  quality  which  shall  not  be  deteriorated  in  the  lapse  of  years  by  the 
moisture  of  the  atmosphere,  which  sometimes  produces  rust  or  stain,  and  sometimes  a  dis- 
integration of  the  surface,  which  gives  all  the  appearance  of  ground-glass.  This  defect  \» 


FIG.  42. 


THE    GLASS   STUDIO. 


157 


Considerable  has  already  been  said  as  to  this  in  Lesson  A.  First,  a  like- 
ness is  to  be  secured ;  next,  a  round,  natural  effect,  by  means  of  a  gradation 
of  light  and  shade.  The  eyes,  must  not  be  sunken ;  the  nose  and  chin 
must  not  cast  shadows ;  too  glaring  a  mass  of  light  must  not  fall  upon 
any  one  part,  and  the  lights  must  not  cross,  and  so  on. 

occasioned  by  the  use  of  an  excess  of  alkali  in  the  composition  of  the  glass,  and  a  hurried 
and  insufficient  melting  of  the  materials.  Another  defect,  occasioned  by  impurity  of  ma- 
terials or  an  excess  of  manganese  in  the  composition  of  the  glass,  is  the  liability  to  change 
by  sunlight  exposure  to  a  yellowish  or  purplish  color,  thus  diminishing  its  power  to  transmit 
the  chemical  rays.  We  are  most  happy  to  record  that  so  much  has  been  written  concerning 
these  two  great  defects  in  glass-making,  that  they  have  been  almost  entirely  remedied  by  glass- 
makers  at  home  and  abroad.  I  have  no  doubt  that  a  great  source  of  trouble  with  some  skylights 
has  been,  that  through  a  want  of  cleanliness,  the  coating  of  dirt  and  moisture  on  the  glass  has 
presented  as  effectual  a  barrier  to  the  sun's  rays  as  the  stain  occasioned  by  rust  or  the  change 
of  color  by  sunlight.  As  blue-glass  and  ground-glass  cut  off  a  much  larger  proportion  of  the 
chemical  rays  than  colorless  glass,  it  is  not  advisable  to  use  them,  unless  the  photographer 
has  so  light  an  apartment  that  is  necessary  to  exclude  some  of  these  rays,  or  to  soften  and 
diffuse  the  light  because  of  its  discomfort  to  the  eyes  of  the  sitters.  But  it  would  be  much 
better  to  accomplish  these  objects  by  means  of  curtains  in  bright  weather,  rather  than  lose 
the  advantage  of  colorless  glass  on  a  very  dark  day. — THOMAS  GAFFIELD. 

The  slope  of  the  glass  roof  should  be  so  arranged  that  at  the  part  where  the  sitter  is  placed 
the  light  may  be  incident  upon  the  subject  with  the  least  disturbance  of  its  components  ;  an 
angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  if  the  angular  form  of  roof  is  used,  will  be  the  best,  but  if  the 
extra  expense  is,  not  an  object,  much  better  results  will  be  obtained  from  the  adoption  of  the 
hal  f-cylindrical  form, as  the 
writer's  experience  of  the 
qualities  possessed  by  two 
glass  studios,  in  identical 
aspect  and  in  juxtaposi- 
tion, but  of  the  two  forms 
in  question,  leads  him  to 
give  greatly  the  preference 
tothecircular,  as  possessing 
more  evenness  and  greater 
rapidity  under  equal  con- 
ditions of  light.  It  may 
be  accounted  for  in  this 
manner — owing  to  the  con- 
tinual variation  in  the  posi- 
tion of  the  sun,  it  is  not 
possible  to  adjust  the  angle 
of  the  straight-sided  glass 
roof  in  such  a  manner  that  the  light  may  pass  at  right  angles,  and  with  the  least  disturbance 
or  loss  of  a  portion  of  its  power;  by  the  obliquity  of  its  impingement  on  the  glass  it  will, 
except  at  one  particular  interval,  be  incident  at  an  oblique  angle  to  the  glazed  surface,  and 


FIG.  43. 


158  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

207.  Screens  and  reflectors  are  made  use  of,  of  many  forms,  to  control 
and  drive  the  light  as  and  where  wanted.  Top  and  side  curtains  also  come 
largely  into  service  for  the  same  purpose.  At  one  time  it  was  very  fash- 
ionable to  blue-frost  the  inside  surface  of  the  glass,  in  order  to  soften  and 
modify  the  light,  Some  used  ground-glass,  others  paint,  to  soften  the 
effect  of  the  light,  but  always  at  the  expense  of  rapidity.  Screens  and 
curtains  are  the  best,  because  the  most  adjustable,  and  give  one  the  power 
and  control  over  the  light  to  change  it  as  the  days  change,  which  any 
permanent  coating  upon  the  glass  could  not  allow. 

thus  suffer  a  derangement  or  loss  of  some  portion  of  its  actinism,  which  is  probably  the 
reason  that  in  practice  the  quality  of  light  is  found  better  which  has  passed  through  a  circular 
form  of  glazed  surface,  which  always  presents  the  same  conditions  to  the  incidence  of  the 
luminous  principle,  whatever  maybe  the  angle  at  which  it  impinges  upon  it. — LAKE  PRICE. 

207.  How  can  we  obtain  perfect  control  over  the  effect  of  light  on  our  model,  without 
materially  diminishing  the  photographic  power  of  that  light?  That  is  the  problem  to  be 
solved,  and  we  may  as  well  say  at  once  we  have  not  wholly  solved  it,  but  we  believe  we 
have  found  a  valuable  clue  to  its  solution,  and  it  has  the  advantage  of  having  been  practically 
tested  in  our  own  studio,  instead  of  being  a  mere  theoretical  suggestion.  We  have  a  large 
amount  of  skylight,  with  very  little  side-light;  by  which  we  mean,  that  our  principal  light 
is  derived  from  the  roof,  with  only  two  small  windows  at  the  side.  This  roof-light  is  a 
ridge  roof,  thus  A,  facing  north  and  south,  and  contains  two  lights  twelve  by  fifteen  feet 
each.  Thus  we  have  a  large  source  of  light  to  begin  with,  and  we  have  tried  to  manage  it 
by  various  systems  of  blinds.  None,  however,  satisfied  us,  for  when  we  had  shut  out  the 
light  by  blinds  until  we  obtained  the  desired  effect,  the  exposure  was  considerably  lengthened, 
and  this  we  hold  to  be,  on  many  grounds,  objectionable.  Here  was  the  difficulty,  and  every 
photographer  who  aspires  to  the  production  of  a  picture  must  have  felt  it.  We  have 
largely  overcome  it  by  abolishing  the  blinds  and  substituting  a  flat  roof  at  the  base  of  the 
angle  formed  by  the  roof-light,  thus,  A.  This  flat  roof  consists  of  a  light  wooden  frame- 
work, upon  which  are  laid  screens,  formed  by  covering  very  light  iron  frames  of  about  one 
square  yard  with  oiled  paper.  Any  one  of  these  screens  can  be  raised  by  pulling  a  string. 
And  what  is  the  effect?  Above,  there  is  all  the  light  that  the  roof  can  admit,  and  this 
penetrates  the  roof  formed  by  the  paper  screens  we  have  mentioned,  and  gives  a  soft 
diffused  light  all  over  this  part  of  the  room.  But  this  cannot  produce  the  harmony 
you  speak  of,  and  must  enormously  lengthen  the  exposure.  Stop  a  minute;  let  us  raise 
one  of  the  screens  to  an  angle,  and  observe  the  effect.  A  strong  light  enters  through  the 
aperture  thus  formed,  all  the  stronger  by  the  reflection  from  the  screen  ;  and  do  you  not 
see  it  falls  exactly  where  we  desire  it?  Any  effect  may  be  thus  obtained  by  raising  and 
lowering  these  doors  in  our  false  roof;  and  as  the  light  has  but  a  short  way  to  travel,  you 
obtain  a  far  more  powerful  effect  than  by  admitting  the  same  amount  of  light  at  the  glass 
roof  above. — J.  M.  BURGESS. 

Another  system  which  is  very  practical  and  easily  managed  where  there  is  plenty  of  room, 
is,  first,  one  set  of  white  curtains  for  the  light  and  an  inside  room,  mounted  on  casters,  and 
covered  on  both  sides  and  top  with  sectional  curtains  of  white  muslin  ;  the  form  of  the 
room  to  be  as  our  glass-rooms  are  usually  constructed.  It  must  be  high  enough  for  a  half  or 


THE    GLASS    STUDIO.  159 

208.  Of  the  curtains,  it  is  best  to  have  two  systems,  one  working  from 
the  bottom  towards  the  top,  and  the  other  from  the  top  towards  the  " 
torn  of  both  top-  and  side-light.     They  FlG  44 

should  be  of  blue  or  gray  stuff,  thick 

enough  to  exclude  light  entirely,  and 

worked  upon  spring  rollers.     The  edges 

should  lap.      The  screens  may  be   of 

thin  white  muslin.     Paper  will  answer, 

but  it  soon  gets  out  of  repair  and  is 

troublesome.    They  should  be  stretched 

on  light  frames  running  on  wires  and 

moved  to  and  fro  by  means  of  cords  or 

a  rod.     With  enough  of  these,  almost  any  possible  effect  can  be  managed 

by  the  skilful  operator. 

209.  In  constructing  a  glass  studio,  certain  other  items  should  be  con- 
sidered, as  follows :  a  means  of  cleaning  the  outer  surface  of  the  glass 
of  the  accumulations  of  dust  and  dirt ;  a  protection  from  hail ;  outward 
sun-shades ;  proper  ventilation ;  leakage ;  a  solid  floor  to  prevent  move- 
ment of  the  subject  during  exposure;  lastly,  a  proper  color  for  the  walls, 
which  should  be  of  some  cold,  neutral  tint.    As  to  this  last,  a  word  more. 
Remember  that  if  the  walls  are  too  light  in  color,  the  reflections  which 
they  cause  will  continually  annoy  you.     A  dark  gray  is  easily  kept  clean, 
and  does  not  disturb  your  management  of  the  light  used  in  making  the 
portrait. 

three-quarter  length  figure.  It  should  be  provided  with  a  semi-opaque  screen  which  may  be 
adjusted  over  the  head  of  the  sitter,  and  another  which  may  be  used  at  the  side  to  increase 
the  strength  of  the  shadow  if  necessary.  This  for  a  south  light  is  the  best  arrangement  which 
I  have  ever  seen. — L.  G.  BIGELOW. 

208.  There  is  no  better  color  for  shades  than  white,  for  you  are  enabled  to  judge  correctly 
the  strength  of  every  light,  and  the  depth  of  every  shadow.     For  semi-opaque  shades,  a  drab 
color  will  never  confuse  by  false  impression  of  the  density  of  your  shadows. — L.  G.  BIGELOW. 

209.  The  writer  has  applied  with  success,  a  simple  means  whereby  cleanliness  of  the 
glazed  roof,  at  the  least  trouble  and  outlay,  is  promoted,  whilst  at  the  same  time,  the  intense 
heat  to  which  the  glass  studio  is  exposed  during  the  summer  months  is  greatly  mitigated  by 
evaporation  from  its  surface.     Carry  along  the  ridge  of  the  top  a  leaden  or  zinc  pipe  per- 
forated with  holes ;  it  can  either  communicate  direct  with  a  cistern — above  its  level — and  be 
made  to  act  by  turning  a  stop-cock,  or  can  be  connected  with  a  small  forcing-pump,  which 
is  inexpensive.     By  allowing  the  water  to  percolate  from  it,  at  intervals  during  the  day,  the 
heated  glazed  surface  is  greatly  cooled,  whilst  at  the  same  time  accumulated  dust,  soot,  etc., 
are  removed. — LAKE  PRICK. 


160 


WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 


210.  The  best  form  and  pitch  of  the  studio  is  not  agreed  upon  uni 
versally.     A  great  many  plans  have  been  given  in  the  magazines.     The 

annexed  drawing  is  one 
of  many  which  have  ap- 
peared in  the  Philadelphia 
Photographer  from  time  to 
time,  and  represents  a 
good  model  throughout. 
The  pitch  is  about  forty- 
five  degrees,  and  it  is 
what  is  known  as  a  "  low" 
one.  Undoubtedly  a  low, 
long  room  gives  the  oper- 
ator m  o  r  e  advantages 
than  a  high,  short  one. 
If  the  light  is  long,  it  can 
readily  be  shortened  by 
means  of  screens,  and  it 
is  often  an  advantage  to 
have  it  long.  If  it  is 
steep,  it  will  undoubtedly 
diffuse  the  light  more  than  a  low  one,  and,  therefore,  be  more  difficult 
to  manage — perhaps  slower  as  well. 

210.  A  steep  light,  about  fifty  degrees  incline,  extending  to  within  five  feet  of  the  floor,  and 
not  less  than  fifteen  by  fifteen  feet  square,  is  probably  a  form  of  light  more  easily  worked 
and  with  better  results  than  any  other,  for  small  groups  and  single  figures.  Such  a  light  is 
always  from  the  right  direction,  and  even  a  novice  in  lighting  would  scarce  find  difficulty 
in  producing  very  acceptable  pictures.  Lights  are  often  constructed  with  the  top-light 
inclining  toward  the  position  usually  occupied  by  the  camera,  giving,  of  course,  -morefront- 
light  than  in  the  usual  plan  where  the  incline  is  toward  the  side-light.  Such  form  of  light 
may  be  in  a  few  exceptional  cases  of  benefit,  but  in  the  majority  of  sittings  a  disadvantage, 
because  the  tendency  to  make  a  flat  picture  is  sure,  and  in  many  instances  to  entirely 
destroy  the  delicate  modeling  which  indicates  the  form  of  the  forehead.  There  is  so  much 
of  character  in  this  feature,  that  the  preservation  of  it  is  of  very  great  importance  in 
finishing  a  characteristic  and  artistic  picture. — L.  G.  BIGELOW. 

It  must  be  strictly  borne  in  mind  that  light  in  striking  glass  is  diverged  ;  it  does  not  travel 
in  parallel  rays.  You  will  find  it  out  in  practice  ;  it  is  good  in  theory,  but  not  good  in  prac- 
tice. That  is  my  objection  to  it.  Those  who  think  a  steep  light  does  not  work  quickly  are 
much  mistaken. — W.  H.  LOCKWOOD. 

A  few  years  ago  I  moved  into  rooms  having  a  side-  and  top-light,  the  lowest  point  of 


THE    GLASS   STUDIO. 


161 


FIG.  46. 


211.  As  has  already  been  said,  the  site  which  a  photographer  is  com- 
pelled to  choose,  must,  in  a  measure,  regulate  the  construction  of  his 
studio.  Enough  has  been  said  to  supply  ideas  for  the  building  of  almost 
any  form,  and  to  suit  almost  any  circumstances.  It  is  a  matter  which 
should  have  the  most  careful  thought,  for,  remember,  it  is  your  means  of 
living,  and  should  not  be  stinted  in  any  degree.  Some  photographers 
think  the  reception-room  should  have  the  first  consideration;  but  it  is  a 
blunder.  The  operating-room  is  where  the  money,  and  the  reputation, 
and  the  work  which  brings  them,  are  made,  and  it  should  be 'well  built 
and  well  furnished,  even  if  the  other  departments  have  to  be  robbed  to 
support  it.  Give  it  your  best  consideration. 

which  was  fourteen  feet  from  the  floor.  I  found  it  to  be  quite  unmanageable,  and  went  to 
the  expense  of  putting  in  a  second  sash  eight  feet  from  the  floor,  glazed  with  ground-glass. 
This  was  an  improvement,  with  the  objection  of  too  much  loss  of  light  on  cloudy  days. 
I  have  now  taken  this  second  sash  out,  and 
substituted  a  double  set  of  curtains,  blue  and 
white,  made  to  slide  on  wires  stretched  length- 
wise of  the  room,  with  the  lowest  set  seven 
feet  from  the  floor.  They  are  one  yard  wide, 
and  can  be  drawn,  of  course,  to  the  extreme 
size  of  light,  or  shut  up  so  as  to  admit  but  a 
.small  portion  of  light  on  the  sitter,  the  rest 
of  the  room  being  in  quite  a  deep  shade.  I 
find  this  a  great  improvement,  besides  being 
easier  for  the  sitter  ;  the  negatives  are  much 
more  excellent  with  no  more  exposure. — A.  s»T.  jt 

Scale    'A  lit  to  Hie  fool. 

MARSHALL. 

211.  I  have  drawn  a  hastily  prepared  sketch  of  a  skylight  that  I  think  would  be  superior 
to  anything  I  have  seen.  I  think  its  advantages  are  these:  First,  being  low,  it  will  work 
soft  and  quick  ;  the  first  slant  of  the  glass  FIG.  47. 

roof  being  at  an  angle  of  only  twenty  de- 
grees, it  brings  the  highest  point  near  the 
sitter.  Second,  the  second  slant  being  at 
an  angle  of  sixty  degrees,  it  shuts  out  the 
sun's  rays,  and  gives  a  fine  illumination 
upon  the  sitter  at  an  angle  of  fifty  or  sixty 
degrees,  and  in  the  exterior  drawing  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  corners  of  the  roof  being 
cut  off  or  slanted  back  from  the  light,  gives 
full  scope  for  all  the  light  obtainable.  Of 
course,  the  light  would  have  to  be  boxed  in, 
to  secure  a  ceiling,  which  I  have  represented 
at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees.  It  seems  to  me  to  have  less  faults  than  any  construction 
£  have  ever  tried,  though  it  may  not  be  free  from  faults. — C.  M.  FRENCH- 
11 


162 


WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 


212.  The  greatest  of  all  trials  in  skylight  building  is  the  proneness  to 
leak.     Sashes  of  peculiar  construction,  guttered  sash-bars,  and  inside  gut- 
ters have  all  been  used,  and  all  are  good.      Guard  against  the  trouble 
thoroughly  in  the  beginning,  if  you  would  avoid  annoyance.     It  can  be  done 
— do  it. 

213.  Finally,  protection  against  the  sun  at  such  certain  times  of  day  as 
when  it  shines  too  directly  upon  the  top-light,  and  from  damage  by  hail. 
When  a  flood  of  direct  light  comes  upon  the  top  of  the  glass-house,  as 
it  is  apt  to  do  in  the  longer  days,  no  system  or  amount  of  screening  or 
curtaining  is  sufficient  to  prevent  the  annoyance  which  it  gives.     You 
never  know  when  it  is  going  to  trouble  you  the  most.     It  destroys  all 
your  calculations,  gives  trouble  to  your  sitter  as  well,  and  is  an  end- 
less aggravation.     Wholesale  shading  only  will  prevent  it,  and  for  this 
outside  screens  are  the  best.     For  the  prevention  of  damage  by  hail,  wire 
cloth  with  large  meshes  may  be  placed  over  the  entire  glass  portion,  but 
some  light  must  be  lost.     As  to  these  difficulties,  the  best  ideas  will  be 
found  in  the  notes  below. 

212.  It  does  not  cost  much  more  to  build  a  skylight  that  never  leaks  than  one  that  is 

leaking;  all   the  time.     The  form  of  guard   should   he  made  in    this 
FIG.  48. 

shape. 

It  will  come  down  (the  rain)  and  run  to  the  sash  and  meet  this 
gutter  and  run  out-doors,  and  the  room  is  always  dry.  My  skylight 
has  not  leaked  a  drop  since  it  was  built,  and  I  do  not  suppose  it  will 
in  a  hundred  years. — ALEXANDER  HESLEB. 

I  give  you  a  sectional  view  of  the  sash-bar.  A  shows  the  end  of  the 
bar  ;  B,  the  groove  or  gutter  ;  c,  the  putty ;  D,  the  glass.  This  is  the 

best  plan  ;  and,  after  more  than  twenty  years  of  constant  use,  I  am  satisfied  that  it  is  the 
only  successful  one. — E.  Z.  WEBSTER.  FIG.  49 

Many  other  plans  and  devices  have  been  tried,  but  all  have  proved  un- 
satisfactory, or  but  partially  successful.  Some  have  recommended  raising 
the  lower  end  of  the  upper  glass  at  the  lap  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch,  to 
lessen  the  effects  of  capillary  attraction,  but  a  strong  wind  against  the 
laps  drives  the  rain  back  in  torrents.  (See  Pig.  50.) — E.  Z.  WEBSTER. 

213.  Another  question  of  importance  is  the  exclusion  of  sunlight  from 
your  glass-room.     For  a  north  light  of  the  usual  inclination,  there  is  no 

better  way  than  to  erect  a  solid  screen  of  suffi- 
cient height   to  accomplish  the  object.     I   have 

tried  inside  and  outside  blinds  of  canvas  and  solid 

material,  but  no  system  is  so  free  from  objection 
as  the  roof-screen  or  shade.  Any  system  which  keeps  the  sun  from  the  glass  is,  of  course,  a 
very  great  consideration  in  summer,  on  account  of  the  lessening  of  the  extreme  heat.  The 
way  mentioned  does  this,  and  does  not  exclude  light. — L.  G.  BIGELOW. 


FIG.  50. 


THE    GLASS    STUDIO. 


163 


FIG.  51. 


214.  To  enable  photographers  who  are  entire  novices  in  this  direction 
to  construct  a  glass  studio,  an  amateur  photographic  friend,  and  a  skilled 
professional  architect,  Mr.  G.  W.  Hewitt,  of  Philadelphia,  has  provided 
suitable  working  drawings  and  specifications,  especially  for  this  work.  The 
terms  used  in  his  description  and  directions  are  such  as  should  be  under- 
stood by  any  builder,  and  the  dimensions  given  are  in  good  proportion 
for  a  rapidly  working  and  easily  managed  apartment.  Following  these 
instructions,  no  photographer  can  fail  to  make  his  carpenter  understand 
his  wants,  and  no  one  can  go  far  wrong. 

I  have  an  unobstructed  north  light,  12  x  14  feet,  at  an  angle  of  40°,  lowest  point  seven  feet 
from  the  floor,  with  side-light  5x12  feet,  two  feet  from  the  floor.  My  awning-frame  is  made  of 
one  and  a  quarter  inch  galvanized  iron  pipe,  23 
feet  long  by  9  feet  wide,  with  two  middle  bars,  9 
feet  long  and  about  7  feet  6  inches  apart.  The 
frame  is  supported  on  the  peak  of  the  skylight 
by  studs  1  foot  high,  which  allows  the  free  pas- 
sage of  wind.  From  the  peak  of  the  skylight 
the  frame  rises  at  an  angle  of  about  18°,  the 
whole  properly  braced  and  fastened  to  the  roof. 

The  awning — 8|  x  23  feet — is  made  of  drill- 
ing, securely  tied  to  the  bar  on  the  peak  of 
the  skylight,  and  with  rings  on  the  side  and 
middle  bars,  so  that  it  will  slide  up  and  down 
free  and  clear  of  all  obstruction.  On  each  of 
the  23-feet  sides  are  fastened  two  pulley-blocks, 
through  which  ropes  pass,  for  the  purpose  of 
raising  and  lowering  the  frame  by  a  sliding 

motion.     Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  all  that  is  required  is  to  raise  it  in  the  morning    tie  it 
securely,  and  lower  it  at  night,  or  on  the  approach  of  a  heavy  wind  or  storm. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  above  description, 
the  awning  extends  east  and  west  about  five 
and  a  half  feet  over  the  light,  thereby  cutting 
off  the  rays  in  the  early  morning  and  late  in 
the  afternoon  ;  and  on  the  north  side  extend- 
ing up,  and  by  dropping  a  plumb-line  would 
cover  about  two-thirds  of  the  light,  thus  shield- 
ing the  light  completely  from  the  sun. 

I  have  used  this  with  the  most  perfect  suc- 
cess, and  would  not,  in  the  future,  be  without 
it.  It  relieves  the  eye  from  that  glare  which 
is  so  objectionable  to  a  great  many,  and,  be- 
sides, makes  the  operating-room  several  de- 
grees cooler. — JOHN  REID. 

Make  a  good  substantial  frame,  full  size,  of  your  skylight.    Send  to  some  manufacturer 


FIG.  52. 


164 


WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHIC8 


215.  The  drawings  which  follow  were  made  after  the  glass  studio, 
under  the  inspiration  of  which  a  goodly  portion  of  this  work  was  pre- 
pared, at  912  Chestnut  Street,  Philadelphia.     It  is  modelled  after  the 
fashion  most  in  use  in  this  city,  with  the  glass  portions,  both  top-  and 
side-exposure,  erected  towards  the  north,  and  its  interior  in  appearance 
much  like  the  plan  shown  in  Fig.  45,  page  160. 

Before  going  into  the  details  of  its  construction,  it  will,  perhaps,  be 
well  to  have  a  good  impression  of  its  construction  as  a  whole. 

216.  For  this  purpose,  please  flrst  attentively  examine  the  sectional 
view  shown  in  Fig.  53.     By  the  numbers,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  in- 

FIG. 53.  terior,  from  the  side-light 

to  the  rear  line  of  the 
top-light,  is  nine  feet ;  the 
distance  from  the  floor 
line  to  the  lower  height 
of  the  top-light  or  ex- 
treme of  the  side-light 
~z*"  is  eight  feet,  of  which 
one  foot  three  inches  are 
wall,  before  the  lower  line 
of  the  side  sash  begins. 
The  height  from  the 
floor  line  to  the  ceiling 
line  is  ten  feet,  and  to  the 
highest  point  of  the  sky- 
light it  is  about  thirteen 
feet.  This  is  a  matter 
which  the  building  in 

FLOOR  Lin/f.  4  which  the  studio  is  con- 

structed  must  govern 
somewhat.  It  is  believed 
that  seven  feet  from  the 
lower  incline  of  the  top- 


V  UMT 


sash  and  ten  feet  for  its  upper  height  would  be  better  and  work  more 

dealer  In  wire-cloth  and  get  enough  wire-cloth,  of  one-half-inch  mesh,  to  cover  the  frame. 
Stretch  tight  on  frame,  then  paint  white  on  both  sides,  and  place  over  the  skylight  about  ten 
inches  from  the  glass,  fasten  securely,  and  you  can  depend  on  it  your  skylight  is  safe  from 
anything  short  of  a  tornado  or  cyclone.  —  Z.  P.  M'MiLLEN. 


THE    GLASS    STUDIO. 


165 


speedily.     As  has  been  observed  in  the  previous  notes,  opinions  differ  on 
this  point. 

217.  In  Fig.  53a  we  are  given  our  architect's  elevation  of  the  sky-  or  top- 
and  side-lights,  and  by  this  we  learn,  too,  that  the  working  length  of  our 
studio  is  sixteen  feet.  At  each  end  of  the  side  sash  sliding  sections  are  pro- 


FIG. 


16- 


vided  for  purposes  of  ventilation,  while  the  central  section  is  permanent. 
The  method  of  glazing  is  described  further  on  in  the  specifications.  This 
latter  differs,  however,  in  the  matter  of  the  top-light,  which  must  be  so 
constructed  as  to  oppose  the  elements,  keep  out  the  dust,  and  provide  for 
the  condensation  of  moisture  which  is  apt  to  occur  inside.  An  iron  bar 
is  run  across  inside,  underneath  the  sash,  for  sake  of  strength.  For 
further  details,  please  proceed. 

218.  Now  please  examine  the  various  sections  of  Fig.  54  attentively 
before  going  into  the  details  of  the  specification.  They  are  given  for  the 
guidance  of  the  carpenter  or  builder.  Section  A  shows  the  junction  of 


166 


WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS 


the  skylight  sash  with  the  vertical  sash ;  section  B  shows  the  construction 
of  the  bottom  rail  of  the  «ide  sash  and  the  permanent  and  the  sliding 
sash  at  each  end,  together  with  the  outside  post  and  the  inside  casing;  hy 
the  plan,  c,  we  are  shown  the  bottom  rail  of  the  skylight  sash  snA  bars 
with  one-quarter  inch  strips  on  the  bottom  rail  to  throw  the  water,  wMch 


FIG.  54. 


comes  either  from  leakage  or  condensation,  out  at  the  opening  D,  said 
opening  allowing  ventilation  as  well ;  section  E  shows  the  form  of  post 
required  in  front  of  the  permanent  sash,  and  section  F  shows  the  end  of 
the  vertical  or  side-sliding  sash.  An  end  view  of  the  sash-bar  construction 
of  the  top-light  is  also  given,  showing  the  relative  places  of  the  glass,  the 
putty,  and  the  drip-line  for  catching  condensation  or  leakage.  To  these 
is  added  a  plan  of  the  top  sash,  looking  down  from  the  rear  towards  the 
junction  with  the  side  sash. 

219.  Before  proceeding  with  the  specifications  for  the  construction  of  a 


THE    GLASS   STUDIO.  167 

glass  studio  after  the  model  given,  it  must  be  understood  that  the  di- 
mensions given  are  not  arbitrary.  They  are  mere  suggestions  given  with 
the  hope  that  more  intelligence  will  be  devoted  to  this  important  branch 
of  preparation  for  the  practice  of  our  art  also,  both  for  the  sake  of  the 
results  and  for  the  welfare  of  the  pocket  photographic. 

220.  For  the  further  information,  then,  of  the  glass  studio  constructor, 
find  now  the  architect's  specification  of  workmanship  and  material 
required  in  the  construction  of  a  skylight  in  accordance  with  the  ac- 
companying plans :  All  material,  unless  otherwise  specified,  is  to  be  of 
first  quality  white  pine,  worked  fair  and  free  from  all  defects.  In  general 
construction,  the  skylight  is  supposed  to  be  inserted  in  a  roof  already- 
built,  and  to  occupy  a  space  on  the  floor  plan  of  nine  feet  in  width  by 
sixteen  feet  long,  other  dimensions  being  marked.  The  four  central 
portions  of  the  vertical  sash  are  stationary,  the  sash  at  either  end  sliding 
back  of  the  next  adjoining  as  shown.  In  the  event  of  the  skylight  being 
built  independent  of  other  work,  the  thickness  of  the  partition  beneath 
the  sash  need  be  only  just  sufficient  to  receive  the  sash  and  stop-bead  on 
the  inside.  As  drawn,  it  is  supposed  to  be  inserted  in  the  upper  story 
of  a  building,  with  a  nine-inch  brick  wall  for  support  under  the  sash. 
The  heel-plate  on  which  the  skylight  sash  rests  is  supported  at  intervals 
by  two  by  four  posts,  chamfered  on  the  outer  edge,  and  resting  on  a  sill 
made  wide  enough  to  receive  them.  The  sash  bars  of  the  skylight  are 
two  and  a  half  inches  deep,  as  shown,  with  a  groove  etc.,  at  the  sides  to 
receive  the  condensation  and  any  leakage  that  may  occur,  and  to 
conduct  it  to  the  bottom  of  the  sash,  where  it  is  turned  to  a  central  open- 
ing by  one-quarter  inch  strips  planted  on  the  bottom  rail  of  the  sash. 
The  bottom  rail  is  one  and  three-eighths  inches  thick,  and  the  bars  are 
cut  square  on  it,  allowing  the  rabbet  for  glass  and  groove  to  pass  above 
it,  as  shown.  The  vertical  sash  to  be  made  of  two-inch  stuff,  divided 
into  lights,  as  shown,  with  numbers,  and  a  top  and  bottom  rail  of  the 
dimensions  marked.  The  skylight  bars  are  to  be  supported  at  the 
centre  of  their  length  by  a  wrought-iron  purlin  three-eighths  by  three 
and  a  half  inches,  with  angle  plates  at  the  ends,  and  screwed  to  one  and 
three-quarter  by  six-inch  facia  on  the  slope,  as  drawn.  The  sash,  through- 
out, is  to  be  glazed  with  the  best  quality  double-thick  American  or 
ribbed  glass.  The  vertical  sash  must  be  well  bradded,  glazed,  and  back 
stopped  with  black  putty,  the  top  sash  well  puttied,  the  glass  not  lapping 


168  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

more  than  a  half  inch.  Before  glazing  the  skylight,  a  cord  should  be 
placed  in  the  grooves,  to  be  drawn  out  after  puttying  up,  in  order  to  keep 
the  grooves  clear.  The  glass  must  be  left  clean  and  whole  on  completion 
of  the  work.  All  wood  and  metal  work  to  be  painted  with  three  coats  of 
the  best  w^hite  lead  and  linseed-oil  paint,  in  such  plain  tint  as  may  be 
directed  or  agreed  upon. 

With  all  these  details  in  hand,  no  photographer  should  find  trouble  in 
securing  for  himself  the  construction  of  a  glass  studio  that  will,  with 
good  management,  enable  him  to  produce  the  very  best  of  results, — such 
as  will  make  him  both  reputation  and  riches.  As  to  the  length  and 
height  of  the  studio,  you  have  been  given  argument  sufficient  to  guide 
you  to  a  choice.  It  is  easier  to  shorten  a  long  room  by  screen  or  back- 
ground than  it  is  to  lengthen  a  short  one,  and  there  are  times  when,  in 
case  of  a  group  being  demanded,  for  example,  a  long  room  will  be  found 
extremely  convenient.  As  to  height,  a  high  light  must  naturally  diffuse 
the  light  more  than  a  low  one,  and  therefore  be  more  difficult  to  manage. 
It  must,  for  the  same  reason,  work  more  slowly.  These  difficulties  may 
be  overcome,  but  why  have  them  at  all  ?  In  a  low  light,  less  time  is  re- 
quired to  cajole  and  drive  the  falling  rays  where  you  want  them,  and  they 
act  more  rapidly,  too. 

As  to  glass,  a  good  deal  of  breakage  and  trouble  from  leakage  can  be 
avoided  by  using  the  best  white,  thick,  ribbed  glass,  since  it  comes  in 
large  plates.  Its  first  cost  is  greater,  but,  all  things  considered,  it  is 
believed  to  be  the  best  in  the  end,  and  the  most  economical. 


LESSON    K. 

ACCESSORIES     AND     LIGHT. 

221.  TASTE  must  be  exercised  in  the  choice  and  use  of  backgrounds 
and  accessories  by  the  would-be  superior  portraitist.     There  can  be  no 
rule  to  guide  him  in  their  selection,  except  his  judgment  and  feeling, 
and  the  requirements  of  his  patrons.     Plain  and  fancy  backgrounds,  and 
plain  and  fancy  accessories  are  both  needed.     Your  manufacturer  and 
dealer  will  sometimes  be  able  to  guide  you  in  their  selection,  and  assist 
you.     Consult  the  first  lesson  of  this  work,  follow  its  injunctions  and 
you  will  scarcely  blunder.     A  plain,  tidy  carpet,  or  rug,  will  complete 
the  furniture  of  your  studio,  and  fully  equip  you  for  work. 

222.  Frequently,  the  background  is  about  the  last  thing  the  photogra- 
pher seems  to  think  of;  but  it  should  be  one  of  the  first,  for  the  reason 

221.  The  power  behind  the  throne  in  many  of  the  composition  pictures   which  have 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  public  is  the  background — silent,  substantial,  powerful,  exert- 
ing a  deep  and  ofttimes  mysterious  and  unrecognized  influence  over  the  products  of  the 
knight  of  the  camera.     Atmosphere,  delicacy,  refinement,  strength,  vigor,  elaborations, 
balance  of  light  and  shade  are  imparted  by  the  background.     It  indicates  the  hour  of  the 
day,  morning,  evening,  starlight,  moonlight,  and  leads  the  subject  by  the  sea-shore,  up  the 
mountain  height,  through  the  garden,  or  over  fields  of  snow  and  ice,  surrounds  him  with 
the  evidences  of  luxury  and  cultivated  taste,  or  the  extreme  of  poverty  and  simple  wants, 
helps  to  tell  the  many  incidents  of  every-day  life,  records  the  triumphs  of  the  stage,  and  is 
ever  susceptible  of  new  and  untried  forms  ;  in  fact,  affords  the  widest  range  to  photographic 
representation  and  to  the  play  of  the  artist's  imagination. — L.  W.  SEAVEY. 

By  many  operators  the  background  is  considered  of  but  little  importance,  but  by  the 
thinking,  successful  worker,  a  thorough  knowledge  of  its  uses  is  considered  of  as  much 
importance  as  the  knowledge  of  chiaro-oscuro  or  photographic  chemistry.  And  our  most 
feeling  and  finest  photographers  are  not  only  well  informed  in  the  foregoing,  but  also  possess 
a  certain  knowledge  (whether  they  know  it  or  not)  of  anatomy,  physiognomy,  and  phre- 
nology. And  my  humble  advice  to  the  hungry  photographer,  who  seats  himself  down  to 
the  table  of  photographic  literature,  now  so  bountifully  spread,  is  to  call  for  a  few  of  these 
last-mentioned  side  dishes,  and  do  not  leave  them  for  the  last  courses,  either. — W.  H.  TIPTOJS. 

222.  In  regard  to  the  relief  of  figures,  objects  contrasted  with  a  light  background  will 
appear  much  more  detached  than  those  placed  against  a  dark  one.     Those  parts  which  are 
farthest  from  the  light  will  remain  the  darkest,  and  every  distinction  of  outline  will  be  lost 

(109) 


170  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

that  it  has  very  much  to  do  with  the  general  effect  of  the  picture.  Now 
what  is  a  background  for  ?  Very  evidently,  in  the  first  place,  to  shield 
improper  objects  from  appearing  in  the  picture.  What  difference  does 
it  make,  if  any  sort  of  an  object  does  appear  in  the  picture?  Well,  the 
aforesaid  object  might  not  harmonize  with  the  subject,  and  would  not 
perhaps  give  the  proper  relief  to  the  figure.  Well,  now,  we  have  hit  it. 
It  is  the  latter  reason  that  we  wish  to  bear  more  particularly  upon.  The 
former  has  been  borne  so  long,  and  many  photographers  seem  so  impreg- 
nated and  saturated  with  the  idea  that  a  background  has  nothing  to  do 
with  the  figure,  but  is  only  to  serve  to  hide  the  objects  behind  it,  that  it 
is  almost  impossible  to  filter  or  dissolve  it  out  of  them. 

It  is  relief  that  we  want,  in  both  senses — relief  from  the  old,  stupid 
way,  and  relief  for  the  figure.  Sitters  should  not  be  planted  up  against 
a  flat  nonentity,  as  plaster  is  "  thrown  "  upon  a  wall,  looking  as  if  they 
were  going  to  slide  downwards  and  forwards.  The  figure  should  stand 
out  in  relief  like  a  marble  statue.  Much  of  this  effect  must  be  secured  by 
proper  lighting,  but  not  all,  for  the  background  does  its  full  share  when 
it  is  a  well  chosen  one. 

With  one  plain  distemper  background,  not  very  dark,  you  can  manage 
to  get  some  very  nice  effects ;  not  very  dark,  because  you  can  shade  such 
a  one,  but  you  cannot  lighten  a  dark  one  very  well.  You  can  secure 
gradation  by  using  your  background  placed  at  an  angle  to  your  lens,  or 
you  can,  by  the  careful  arrangement  of  a  curtain  at  one  side,  shade  it 
gradually  so  as  to  get  a  similar  effect. 

In  placing  the  figure,  of  course  you  know  that  the  shadow  side  should 
be  against  the  light  part  of  the  background,  and  vice  versa.  Again,  that 
the  shade  should  be  increased  or  diminished  according  to  the  complex- 
ion of  the  subject.  Work  by  contraries. 

223.  By  the  choice  and  use  of  the  backgrounds,  the  real  talent  of  the 

in  the  general  mass  of  shadows ;  and  unless  they  have  their  reflexes,  they  will  either  cut 
hard  upon  the  ground,  or  appear  to  become  a  part  of  it.  All  bodies  being  surrounded  by 
light  and  shade,  the  artist  may  so  arrange  his  figures  that  the  dark  side  will  fall  upon  a  light 
ground,  and  the  light  side  upon  a  dark  ground.  This  arrangement  serves  to  detach  the 
figure,  and,  at  the  same  time,  contributes  to  harmony  of  effect.  The  reflected  lights  will  be 
more  or  less  apparent  in  proportion  as  they  are  seen  against  a  darker  or  brighter  ground, 
because  of  the  force  of  contrast.  Reflected  lights  may  be  so  thrown  as  to  modify  the  force 
of  a  cast  shadow. — M.  A.  DWIQHT. 

223.  Fuseli  says,  "By  the  choice  and  scenery  of  backgrounds,  we  are  frequently  enabled 
to  judge  how  far  a  painter  entered  into  his  subject;  whether  he  understood  its  nature;  to 


ACCESSORIES   AND    LIGHT.  171 

photographer  is  often  discovered.  They  may  be  too  obtrusive,  attracting 
the  attention  of  the  eye  first,  and  distracting  it  from  the  portrait  proper : 
they  may  not  harmonize  with  the  age,  dress,  character,  and  general  ap- 
pearance of  the  model,  and  their  color  and  lighting  may  also  prove 
ignorance  on  the  part  of  the  artist  who  introduced  them  into  the  picture. 
Again,  if  they  are  "  fancy  "  backgrounds,  they  may  be  so  placed  in  rela- 
tion to  the  sitter  as  to  produce  some  ridiculous  incongruities. 

224.  "  Fancy  "  backgrounds,  so  called,  are  such  as  are  painted  to  rep- 
resent some  scene  or  "  bit "  in  nature,  art,  history,  etc.,  and  are  to  be  used 
in  the  more  pretentious  class  of  portraits.  When  they  harmonize  with 
the  principal  object  in  the  picture,  namely,  the  living  model,  they  serve 
an  excellent  purpose,  and  relieve  the  dull  monotony  which  would  be 
caused  by  the  constant  use  of  a  "  plain  "  background.  The  figures  upon 
them  should  usually  be  represented  with  much  less  distinctness  than  the 
accessories  and  the  model,  and  the  whole  of  the  former  should  be  sub- 
ordinate to  the  latter. 

what  class  it  belonged;  what  impression  it  was  capable  of  making;  what  passion  it  was 
calculated  to  arouse.  The  sedate,  the  solemn,  the  severe,  the  awful,  the  terrible,  the  pleasing, 
the  solitary,  the  gay,  are  stamped  by  it.  Sometimes  it  should  be  negative,  entirely  subordi- 
nate, receding  or  shrinking  into  itself.  Sometimes  its  forms,  sometimes  its  colors,  ought  to 
command.  A  subject  in  itself,  bordering  on  the  usual  or  common,  may  become  sublime  or 
pathetic  by  the  background  alone,  and  a  sublime  or  pathetic  one  may  become  trivial  and 
uninteresting  by  it."  The  student  will  readily  perceive  that  no  definite  rules  can  be  given  to 
guide  him  in  this  department.  In  some  subjects  it  is  required  that  the  principal  figure 
should  be  distinctly  seen,  and  again  that  it  should  be  partially  lost  in  the  background. 
Success  depends  as  much  upon  an  eye  for  effect  as  upon  artistic  skill. — M.  A.  DWIGHT. 

The  effects  produced  by  obtrusive  backgrounds  are  sometimes  very  ludicrous.  Here  is 
the  full-length  "carte"  of  an  old  gentleman  who  is  standing  against  a  background  of  pane) 
scroll-work.  It  happens  that  he  is  so  placed  with  reference  to  this  scroll,  that  a  short, 
sturdy  piece  of  it,  with  a  heavy  turn  at  the  end,  seems  to  issue  from  his  coat-skirts,  and  he 
stands  furnished  with  a  stiff,  curly,  and  powerful  tail!  A  still  more  funny  example  is  that  of 
a  youth  who  stands  half  turned  towards  a  screen  representing  a  waterfall  and  rocks.  The  fall 
consists  of  many  little  streams,  one  tiny  rill  of  which  seems  to  spring  most  conspicuously 
from  about  the  centre  of  the  youth's  anatomical  structure.  In  another  picture  a  fountain  in 
a  garden  issues,  apparently,  out  of  the  head  of  a  child,  whose  vacant  look  and  helpless 
attitude,  as  she  stands  in  that  highly  horticultural  region,  is  strongly  suggestive  of  water  on 
the  brain. — JAMES  MUDD. 

224.  Backgrounds,  as  a  rule,  and  as  they  are  generally  painted,  convey  to  the  eye  alone  a 
very  pleasing  effect  artistically,  and  we  admire  them  for  it;  but  when  they  become  a  part  of 
a  finished  picture  by  combination,  they  lose  that  effect  and  become  mere  indistinct  masses 
of  light  and  shade,  conveying  no  apparent  meaning,  at  least  not  that  which  we  fondly  hoped 
to  see  as  the  result  of  our  thought,  desire,  and  brains ;  neither  does  it  to  the  sitter.  And  the 


172  WILSON'S    PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

225.  "  Plain  "  backgrounds  are  such  as  are  painted  in  one  color  all 
over,  sometimes  being  gradated  from  light  to  dark,  horizontally  or  di- 
agonally, in  order  to  produce  greater  relief.  More  latitude  is  allowed  in 
their  use  if  one  depends  for  this  gradation  upon  the  management  of  the 
light  and  shade  which  is  caused  to  fall  upon  them.  The  background 
used  for  the  vignette  picture  should  be  lighter  in  color  than  that  used  for 
such  as  are  not  to  be  vignetted,  and  should  not  be  gradated.  It  may  be 
circular  in  shape,  square,  or  oblong. 

remark  the  photographer  constantly  hears  is,  "  Why  must  those  ugly  markings  always  be  on 
such  nicely  (otherwise)  executed  photographs?  That  was  a  beautiful  scene,"  etc.  Very 
encouraging,  truly  !  Well,  the  fact  seems  plain  to  me,  and  it  is  only  on  account  of  the 
artist  making  a  background  a  picture  in  itself,  instead  of  having  any  reference  to  the  com- 
bination it  takes  part  in.  As  it  is  always  out  of  focus,  it  is  always  indistinct,  or,  as  we  call  it, 
not  sharp.  Now,  the  remedy  is  to  have  a  background  painted  as  sharp  and  harsh  as  it  is  pos- 
sible to  make  it,  seeing  always  that  the  drawing  is  thoroughly  correct,  taking  as  much  care 
with  that  part  as  though  it  was  to  be  a  finished  drawing  alone,  and  that  every  detail  is 
thoroughly  and  carefully  correct  and  clearly  worked  out.  Mere  suggestions  of  shape,  light, 
and  shade  will  not  do,  as  is  proved  by  our  daily  practice.  Then,  as  the  background  is  behind 
the  sitter  some  ten  to  twenty  inches,  it  is  necessarily  out  of  focus  if  the  sitter  is  in,  and  the 
sharpest  background  that  can  be  made  will  not  be  too  distinct  to  make  or  form  a  harmonious 
whole  in  connection  with  the  subject,  provided  it  is  intelligently  chosen. — C.  ALFRED 
GARBETT. 

225.  The  law  of  massing  is  by  no  means  confined  to  the  head.  The  background  should 
present  a  mass  by  itself,  sustaining  those  of  the  head,  and  by  sustaining  being,  in  unity  with 
them,  and  also  enforcing  the  other  idea  of  breadth,  continuing  or  commencing  the  discover- 
able direction  of  the  light,  thus  carrying  the  sweep  of  light  through  the  whole  picture. 

To  do  this  the  background  should  be  graded.  A  few  years  ago  we  prided  ourselves  on 
being  able  to  produce  a  perfectly  even,  flat,  monotonous  background.  If  it  was  darker  on 
one  side  than  on  the  other,  something  was  amiss;  and  if  one  of  the  pictures,  now  so  common, 
with  an  elegantly  graded  ground,  had  been  shown  us,  nine  out  of  ten  photographers  would 
have  pronounced  it  wrong,  the  other  would  have  looked  doubtingly  at  it,  hesitating  to  confess 
the  pleasure  he  might  have  felt,  to  such  extent  had  precedent,  and  pride  in  mechanical 
dexterity  blinded  us,  so  far  removed  were  we  from  the  sympathy  with  nature  which  comes 
only  by  long  study  and  converse  with  her.  The  background,  while  in  general  tone  consid- 
erably below  the  face,  and  in  one  mass,  should  have  its  variety,  and  the  idea  of  contrast 
would  lead  it  to  place  its  dark  side  opposite  the  light  side  of  the  face. — W.  J.  BAKER. 

I  have  an  idea  with  reference  to  a  background  which  I  am  sure  will  work  well.  Instead 
of  a  gradated  tint  painted  on  the  background,  I  propose  to  have  the  light  itself  throw  a 
shadow  over  it,  which  will  blend  from  dark  to  light  much  better  than  any  artist  with  his 
brush  can  possibly  do  it.  This  the  reader  can  illustrate  for  himself  by  means  of  a  common 
saucer  for  a  background  and  by  placing  in  front  of  it  a  little  doll's  head.  You  will  at 
once  see  what  a  great  number  of  different  effects  you  have  at  your  command,  by  turning 
the  saucer  to  the  right  or  left,  and  by  tipping  it  forwards  and  backwards;  the  blending 
is  wonderfully  soft,  and  you  can  have  the  shadow  stop  very  suddenly  also,  without  being 


ACCESSORIES    AND    LIGHT.  173 

226.  As  a  rule,  backgrounds  are  made  to  stretch  upon  a  frame  with 
their  whole  surface  equidistant  from  the  camera.  Another  form,  recom- 
mended by  Mons.  Adam  Salomon,  the  renowned  master  photo.-artist  and 
sculptor,  of  Paris,  by  the  use  of  which  gradation  was  secured,  kno\vn  as 
the  "  alcove  "  background,  came  into  use  a  few  years  ago,  but  for  some 
reason  or  other  soon  fell  into  disuse.  Such  was  the  fate  also  of  Mr.  Kurtz's 
very  ingenious  cone-shaped  background.  Both  had  merits,  but  they 
were  cumbersome,  and  seemed  to  be  ahead  of  the  intelligence  possessed 
by  the  fraternity  at  the  time.  Again,  pretty  much  the  same  effects  could 
be  obtained,  by  gradating  the  plain  background  in  various  ways. 

harsh.  If  you  put  the  doll  under  a  top-light,  the  top-light  will  make  a  shadow  on  the  back- 
ground just  where  it  should,  and  if  you  have  your  light  on  one  side,  the  weight  of  the 
shadow  on  the  saucer  will  also  corne  where  it  should ;  and  again,  if  you  light  up  with  both 
combined,  you  will  also  find  the  little  saucer  to  do  its  duty  nicely. — WM.  KURTZ. 

The  effect  of  gradation  on  a  background  in  producing  relief  in  a  portrait  often  see'ms  to 
be  overlooked  by  photographers.  No  one,  on  looking  over  a  collection  of  photographs, 
vignette  heads,  medallions,  etc.,  can  fail  to  notice  the  even  and  unbroken  tint  of  the  back- 
grounds generally. 

The  following  plan  will,  in  great  measure,  supply  what  is  wanted  without  extra  time  or 
trouble  :  A  square  background  (about  four  feet  is  a  convenient  size),  on  a  frame  with  a  cross- 
piece  at  the  back,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  a  hole  to  allow  the  horizontal  rod  of  the  rest  tc 
pass.  It  will  be  seen  that  when  the  rest  is  placed  against  the  head  of  the  sitter  the  face 
appears  in  the  centre  of  the  square.  There  will  be  found  no  difficulty  in  painting  this 
small  background  with  a  gradation  from  dark  on  one  edge  to  light  at  the  other.  Lamp- 
black and  whiting,  with  a  little  size,  answers  capitally.  This  can  be  turned  round  any 
way;  light  at  the  top,  shading  into  dark  below,  or  vice  versa;  or  a  diagonal  gradation  to 
suit  circumstances  or  taste.  It  is  astonishing  the  different  effects  produced  by  turning  this 
background  round.  Sometimes  the  effect  may  be  improved  by  shielding  part  of  the  light 
from  the  background  with  a  blind  or  curtain.  From  the  fact  of  this  background  being  so 
close  to  the  head  of  the  sitter,  a  bold  cast  shadow  can  be  obtained  from  the  head  or 
shoulders,  which  is  very  effective. — R.  GILLO. 

226.  Now  as  to  the  alcove  background,  a  few  brief  hints  on  the  construction  of  the  com- 
bination may  be  useful.  The  formation  of  the  curved  background  itself  is  the  chief  consid- 
eration. Mine  consists,  first,  of  two  curved  pieces  of  wood  to  form  the  framework.  These 
are  placed  one  for  the  bottom  and  one  for  the  top,  at  the  proper  distance  apart,  and  a  series 
of  thin,  narrow  planks,  not  more  than  three  or  four  inches  wide,  are  fastened  to  the  curved 
pieces  of  wood,  the  planks  being  fastened  to  each  other  by  means  of  a  groove  and  tongue. 
"When  complete,  the  little  angles  or  irregularities  in  the  curve  are  taken  off  with  a  plane. 
Probably,  if  well-made  laths,  something  like  those  used  in  Venetian  blinds,  were  employed, 
a  more  perfect  and  regular  curve  might  be  more  easily  obtained.  In  such  case,  the  general 
framework  would  probably  require  to  be  a  little  more  firm  or  rigid.  I  found  it  desirable  to 
increase  the  rigidity — seeing  that  the  arrangement  is  often  wheeled  rapidly  about — by  means 
of  a  binding  of  iron  running  round  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  curve.  The  background  may, 
of  course,  be  painted,  or  sanded,  or  treated  in  any  manner  to  suit  the  taste. — ADAM  SALOMON. 


174  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

227.  As  much  artistic  taste,  a  thorough  knowledge  of  color,  the  effects 
of  light  and  shade  from  various  causes  and  sources,  arid  the  principles 
which  govern  them  all,  are,  necessary  to  the  production  of  photographic 
backgrounds,  and  since  America  is  favored  with  such  renowned  back- 
ground painters,  it  is  hardly  recommended  that  photographers  attempt 

227.  The  backgrounds  you  can  do  by  sizing  your  cloth  with  glue-size,  with  a  little  alum 
in  it,  but  do  not  use  this  size  to  mix  with  your  color ,  glue-size  without  alum  will  work  the 
best.  First,  coat  in  your  groundwork,  then  use  your  color  weaker  with  glue-size,-  and  all 
subsequent  additions,  until  you  have  accomplished  your  purpose.  It  is  fully  as  well  to  draw 
in  your  designs  with  chalk  before  taking  in  hand  the  color,  if  it  is  not  handy  for  you  to 
work  without  the  chalk  marks.  The  colors  best  to  use  are  raw  umber,  ivory-black,  and 
whiting,  mixed  to  your  fancy  with  glue-size. — M.  H.  ALBEE. 

The  influence  of  the  background  upon  the  quality  of  the  portrait  is  enormous.  The 
background  serves  to  bring  out  the  figure  strong  and  bold,  and  ought,  therefore,  never 
to  suppress  the  same.  If  the  background  bears  a  drawing,  the  details  of  the  latter  must 
only  be  faintly  indicated,  never  strongly  marked  out.  In  order  not  to  act  too  much 
itself,  the  background  must  be  without  lustre.  Although  good  and  suitable  backgrounds 
are  met  with  in  the  market  at  present,  it  may  yet  be  of  advantage  to  know  a  very  simple 
way  to  make,  one's  self,  without  much  trouble,  an  effective  background  for  certain  special 
purposes.  As  a  basis,  common  unbleached  sheeting  serves  usually;  the  same  is  wet  and 
stretched  smoothly  upon  a  wooden  frame,  coated  evenly  with  a  thin  paste,  or  with  solution 
of  dextrin,  and  left  to  dry.  The  color  is  prepared  by  mixing  thoroughly  ground  dextrin 
with  lamp-black  and  umber,  and  is  placed  dry  with  a  linen  pad  upon  the  sheeting.  After 
the  desired  effect  has  been  obtained,  the  reverse  part  of  the  sheet  is  moistened  with  a  sponge, 
which  has  been  moistened  in  very  weakly  acidulated  water,  and  thereby  the  color  becomes 
fixed.  If  still  greater  durability  should  be  desired,  the  flat-lying,  quite-dry  background  is 
coated  with  a  solution  of  thirty  grains  dammar  rosin  in  one  pound  benzine;  this  varnish  dries 
up  dull.  In  place  of  the  mixture  of  dextrin  and  umber,  the  following  may  be  used  to  advan- 
tage. Mix  in  the  proportion  of  five  hundred  grammes  ivory-black  and  umber  with  two  and  a 
half  kilogrammes  boiling  water,  to  which  two  hundred  and  fifty  grammes  good  glue  are  added, 
which  has  been  soaked  previously  twelve  hours  in  cold  water.  The  whole  is  caused  to 
evaporate  until  dry,  when  the  remaining  coloring  matter  is  ground  fine.  This  dry  color  is 
laid  on  with  a  cotton  rag  upon  the  stretched  dry  sheet.  It  is  easy  to  produce  any  desired 
gradations,  and  care  is  to  be  taken  to  begin  painting  first  on  that  side  which  is  to  be  the 
darker  one.  According  to  desire  and  necessity,  white  color  may  be  admixed.  Clouds  are 
very  easily  painted  in  this  way.  The  treatment  of  the  sheeting  before  and  after  painting  is 
the  same  as  the  one  indicated  above. 

When  pretty  strong  toning  is  desired,  two  or  three  mixtures  of  color  must  be  made. 
Mix  kaolin  and  dextrin  in  equal  parts  and  knead  the  mixture  with  sufficient  water  to 
impart  to  it  the  consistency  of  modelling  clay.  This  mixture  divide  into  three  equal  parts. 
The  first  part  knead  with  as  much  lamp-black  as  it  will  receive ;  the  second  knead  with  half 
as  much  lamp-black  as  used  with  the  first  part,  and  with  the  third  part  use  only  so  much 
lamp-black  as  is  necessary  to  impart  to  it  a  light-gray  color.  These  mixtures  must  be  left  to 
dry  thoroughly,  when  they  are  ground  fine.  They  are  laid  on  the  dry  sheeting  and  rubbed 
with  a  blacking-brush.  The  manner  of  blending  the  light  parts  into  the  daik  parts  upon 


ACCESSORIES   AND    LIGHT.  175 

to  paint  their  own  backgrounds.  It  is  better  to  pay  for  having  them  pro 
vrided  by  experienced  artists  and  coldrists. 

228.  Backgrounds  may  be  painted  either  in  "  distemper  "  or  in  oil.  Of 
course  the  latter  are  the  more  costly,  but  they  are  also  the  more  lasting, 
and  the  least  subject  to  injury.  Again,  they  are  the  more  difficult  to  paint. 

the  ground  depends  upon  the  individual  taste  of  the  maker,  but  is  again  influenced  by  the 
alternative  whether  the  picture  is  destined  to  be  printed  in  full,  or  only  as  vignette.  In 
most  cases  one  side  is  kept  darker  than  the  other,  and  usually  the  middle  appears  lighter 
than  the  margin. — DR.  EDWARD  LIESEGANG. 

228.  If  the  ground  is  to  be  treated  in  oil-colors,  proceed  as  follows  :  The  sheeting  is 
stretched  upon  a  wooden  frame  and  primed  with  a  good  paste  of  equal  parts  of  starch 
and  water.  After  drying,  the  color  is  laid  on,  the  same  having  been  prepared  in  the  follow- 
ing manner:  Mix  ten  parts  white-lead,  two  parts  siccative,  and  as  much  black-color  as  is 
necessary  to  produce  the  desired  tone,  with  five  parts  oil  of  turpentine.  This  mixture  is 
stirred  well,  then  left  quiet  for  some  hours  until  the  white-lead  has  settled  upon  the  bottom. 
Now,  as  much  of  the  oil  of  turpentine  as  possible  is  cautiously  poured  off.  and  fresh  oil  of 
turpentine  is  added,  so  that  the  mixture  gets  a  good  consistency;  then  two  parts  of  scraped 
brown  soap  is  added  yet,  and  the  mixture  filtered  through  cotton  stuff. 

A  large  brush  is  used  to  lay  this  color  on ;  the  faster  the  whole  surface  is  covered  the  better. 
If  the  stuff  should  extend,  stretch  it  again  tight.  Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  paint  it  twice. 

Another  way  consists  in  coating  the  stretched  sheeting  with  a  thin  solution  of  glue,  and 
after  it  has  become  dry  it  gets  painted  with  a  color  which  has  been  diluted  with  petroleum 
and  linseed-oil,  so  as  to  be  easily  laid  on  with  the  brush.  The  linseed-oil  prevents  the  color 
from  drying  too  fast,  and  causes  the  same  to  flow  easier. 

The  stretching  of  the  painted  background  upon  the  frame  is  done  as  follows  :  The  upper 
border  of  the  background  is  first  fastened,  beginning  in  the  middle,  with  short  tacks  at  inter- 
vals of  two  inches,  and  then  the  frame  is  placed  upright  in  order  to  get  moistened.  The 
back  part  of  the  ground  must  be  very  evenly  moistened,  i.e.,  with  cold  water  for  glue-grounds, 
and  with  warm  water  for  oil-grounds.  With  glue-grounds,  be  careful  not  to  wet  the  front 
part,  as  the  ground  would  be  spoiled  thereby..  After  having  been  moistened,  the  ground  is 
placed  again  upon  the  flour,  and  the  other  three  borders  fastened.  Backgrounds  stretched  in 
this  way  are  absolutely  free  from  folds.  Do  not  omit  to  wet  the  borders  thoroughly,  as  they 
are  apt  to  tear  if  dry. 

Smooth  backgrounds  are  obtainable  in  the  market  up  to  a  width  of  three  and  a  quarter 
metres,  and  in  different  shades  of  color.  For  vignetted  portraits,  choose  a  lighter  color  than 
for  such  as  are  to  be  printed  in  full. 

I  may  mention  yet  the  backgrounds  with  a  landscape  for  a  motive,  which  are  often  em- 
ployed. If  such  backgrounds  are  tastefully  and  appropriately  arranged — not  too  much 
worked  out  in  detail — they  are,  in  most  cases,  of  quite  a  good  effect  with  portraits.  It  is, 
however,  indispensably  necessary  to  have  several  such  backgrounds  for  a  change,  as  nothing 
is  more  tasteless  than  a  continual  repetition  of  the  same  objects  in  all  the  pictures.  Parlor 
decorations  have  also  a  very  good  effect,  if  not  going  too  much  into  detail,  and  not  "crowding 
out"  the  head  and  figure,  which,  of  course,  must  always  be  the  main  parts  in  a  portrait. 

The  wish  to  get  the  accessories  and  the  background  of  the  portrait  as  sharp  as  the  figure  is 
very  difficult  of  realization,  and,  furthermore,  shows  very  little  artistic  taste.  Only  in  repro- 


176 


"WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 


FIG.  55. 


229.  There  are  many  devices  which  the  ingenuity  of  the  individual 
photographer  will  suggest,  according  to  his  wants,  for  storing  the  back- 
grounds needed  when  not  in  use.  A 
plan  recommended  by  the  well-known 
amateur  photographer,  Mr.  Charles 
Wager  Hull,  will  be  well  understood 
by  Fig.  55.  By  the  use  of  a  frame 
or  stand  and  proper  pulleys,  the 
backgrounds  not  in  use  are  simply 
let  down  to  the  floor,  out  of  the  way. 
230.  The  introduction  of  accesso- 
ries into  the  picture  to  help  make  up 
the  proper  composition  is  always  in 
order,  provided -it  is  governed  by  the 
rules  laid  down  in  Lesson  A.  The 
greatest  blunders  are  made  in  this 
direction.  The  difficulty  is  not  only 
that  art  and  nature  must  be  combined, 
but  that  such  incongruous  choice  is 
made  oftentimes  of  the  articles  used  with  a  given  model.  Profusion 

ductions  from  designs,  engravings,  etc.,  is  it  of  paramount  importance  that  the  whole  surface 
»hould  appear  equally  sharp.  In  portraits,  however,  it  is  strictly  necessary,  for  the  artistic 
beauty  of  the  picture,  that  some  objects  of  secondary  value  are  indistinct  and  out  of  focus  in 
order  to  bring  out  the  main  objects  the  clearer  and  more  natural. 
In  examining  a  photographic  picture,  we  must  not  ask,  "Is  it 
everywhere  sharp?"  That  would  be  a  mistake.  Let  us  see  first 
what  the  picture  purports  to  represent.  If  the  artist  designs  to 
reproduce  the  mechanical  copy  of  an  object,  then,  of  course,  he 
is  bound  to  render  everything  sharp  and  exact;  but  if  he  aims 
at  obtaining  an  artistic  effect,  then  the  picture  can  only  be 
judged  according  to  artistic  rules,  and  these  never  exact  a  uni- 
form sharpness.  The  well-known  background  painter,  Seavey, 
in  New  York,  published  a  very  praiseworthy  essay,  with  illus- 
trations, upon  the  use  of  painted  backgrounds,  .in  the  Photo- 
graphic Archives  and  in  the  Philadelphia  Photographer. 

In  order  to  prevent  the  backgrounds  taking  up  too  much  room, 
and  to  be  able  to  change  and  shift  them  easily,  a  "shifting- 
wagon  "  may  be  employed,  which  is  a  strong  frame  of  slats, 
contrived  as  in  Fig.  56,  and  which  can  be  easily  moved  upon 
four  wheels,  in  every  direction.  In  the  three  notches  three 
background  frames  fit,  which  are  mounted  on  both  sides  with  stuff,  and  appropriately  cut  on 


FIG.  56. 


ACCESSORIES    AND    LIGHT.  177 

should  never  be  resorted  to.  Harmony  should  be  always  attended  to, 
and,  above  all,  general  effect. 

231.  As  the  photographer  is  required  to  make  likenesses  of  all  sorts  of 
people,  of  as  many  characters  and  ages,  he  should  have  at  hand,  for  ready 
selection,  an  assortment  of  useful  accessories,  with  the  use  and  appropriate- 
ness of  which  he  should  familiarize  himself,  so  as  to  be  able  to  choose 
quickly  and  with  taste  when  the  time  comes  for  their  use.  With  infants, 

the  lower  corners.  The  frame  must  be  pretty  solid,  and  of  a  height  of  about  fifteen  centi- 
meters. The  size  of  the  background  must  be  regulated  by  the  circumstance  whether  cabinet 
sizes,  whole  pictures,  or  groups,  are  to  be  taken.  In  the  first  case,  a  ground  of  one  and  a 
half  to  two  metres  is  sufficient;  for  whole  figures,  two  and  a  half  to  three  metres,  and  for 
groups,  the  size  of  the  ground  will  be  according  to  the  expansion  desired.  Dark  back- 
grounds require  much  longer  lighting  than  lighter  ones;  the  difference  is  often  very  material 
in  the  same  studio. — DR.  EDWARD  LIESEGANG. 

230.  I,  for  one,  think  the  tendency  of  the  day  is  too  strong  towards  obtaining  startling 
effects  and  too  numerous  accessories.     During  the  last  three  years  we  have  made  a  great 
number  of  vignettes,  and  in  winter  time  have  printed  in  scenes  from  negatives  taken  for 
the  purpose,  giving  charming  effects.     Our  customers   sustain  us  in  our  decision,  and  no 
doubt  it  reveals  all  the  operator's  strength  when  he  takes  his  sitter  almost  alone,  having  only 
some  simple  accessory  to  help  to  "  tell  the  story." — W.  J.  TOPLEY. 

A  great  deal  has  been  done,  and  very  beautiful  pictures  made,  by  the  mixture  of  the  real 
and  artificial  in  a  picture.  Although,  for  choice,  I  should  prefer  everything  in  a  photo- 
graph being  from  nature,  I  admit  a  picture  to  be  right  when  the  "effect"  is  natural, 
however  obtained.  It  is  not  the  fact  of  reality  that  is  required,  but  the  truth  of  imitation 
that  constitutes  a  veracious  picture.  Cultivated  minds  do  not  require  to  believe  that  they 
are  deceived,  and  that  they  look  on  actual  nature  when  they  behold  a  pictorial  representa- 
tion of  it.  An  educated  observer  does  not,  like  that  Moor  to  whom  Bruce,  the  African 
traveller,  gave  the  picture  of  a  fish,  believe  that  the  artist  had  made  a  reality  and  say:  "If 
this  fish  at  the  last  day  should  rise  against  you  and  say  :  '  Thou  hast  given  me  a  body  but  not 
a  living  soul,'  what  should  you  reply?''  Art  is  not  the  science  of  deception,  but  that  of 
giving  pleasure,  the  word  pleasure  being  used  in  its  purest  and  loftiest  sense.  For  this  pur- 
pose— that  is,  the  mixture  of  the  real  with  the  artificial — the  accessories  of  the  studio  should 
receive  the  addition  of  picturesque  or  ivy-covered  logs  of  wood,  ferns,  tufts  of  grass,  etc., 
either  growing  in  low  pots  or  gathered  fresh.  It  will  be  found  easy  to  make  up  picturesque 
foregrounds  with  these  materials,  behind  which  a  painted  view  or  sky  may  be  placed.  If 
the  background  be  well  painted,  it  will  be  found  to  unite  very  naturally  with  the  fore- 
ground. Care  must  be  taken  that  the  linear  perspective  be  avoided,  and  that  the  light  fall 
on  the  figures  in  the  same  direction  as  it  does  on  the  painted  screen. — H.  P.  ROBINSON. 

231.  For  despatch  and  convenience,  it  is  best  to  have  accessories  arranged  and  waiting. 
In  rustics,  have  the  scenery  adjusted,  the  rocks,  stumps,  stones,  foliage,  and  backgrounds  all 
effectively  made  up,  with  suitable  openings  in  which  to  place  your  subject.     By  thus  doing, 
there  intervene  no  long  moments  of  waiting.     No  losing  heart  and  expression  on  the  one 
side,  nor  a  hurried,  jumbled-up  mess  on  the  other.     Also  have  at  hand,  books,  fans,  flowers, 
ornaments,  yellow-tinted  letters  filled  with  suggestions  with  which  ladies  can  beguile  them- 

12 


178  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

a  means  of  making  them  comfortable  is  all  you  can  attempt.  Their  won- 
drous expressions  will  provide  the  rest. 

232.  In  posing  the  model,  every  regard  should  be  paid,  too,  to  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  draperies.  If  a  male,  the  folds  in  the  coat,  the  wrin- 
kles in  the  trowsers,  and  the  arrangement  of  the  cuffs  and  neck-wear, 
should  all  be  looked  after  and  nicely  balanced.  As  to  the  other  sex, 
there  is  no  end  to  the  opportunities  which  are  given  you,  by  their  apparel, 
to  distinguish  yourself  and  show  your  knowledge  of  the  principles  pressed 
down  and  running  over  in  Lesson  A. 

selves  and  their  hands.  Have  canes,  hats,  pencils,  pens,  and  more  books,  to  ease  off  the 
angularity  of  masculines.  Provide  jumping-jacks,  barking  dogs,  tin  whistles,  jews-harps, 
and  a  small  organ  to  bamboozle  the  babies.  Besides,  be  able  yourself  to  turn  into  an 
acrobat,  gymnast,  or  long-tailed  monkey,  on  the  shortest  notice. — J.  H.  KENT. 

The  first  thing  I  will  speak  of  will  be  my  baby  lounge.  I  wanted  one,  but  did  not  see 
anything  advertised  that  quite  suited  me,  so  I  got  up  one  to  suit  my  own  ideas,  and  while  it 
works  nicely,  it  is  not  patented.  I  went  to  a  furniture  store  and  got  a  cheap  table,  similar 
to  those  used  in  lager-beer  saloons,  about  eighteen  by  thirty-six  inches  top,  and  on  casters,  so 
as  to  move  easily  ;  got  a  board  just  the  size  of  the  table  to  nail  the  back  and  end  on  to;  and 
it  must  be  made  so  that  the  corner  will  face  the  side-light  whichever  way  you  work.  Make 
your  back-  and  end-board  about  fifteen  inches  high  in  the  corner;  put  a  small  hole  about  the 
middle  of  the  end,  one  twelve  inches  from  the  corner  in  the  back-board,  and  another  in  the 
same  line,  twenty-four  inches  from  the  corner.  Now  upholster  in  drab  reps  or  some  light- 
colored  covering,  and  you  have  a  lounge  you  can  tie  on  one,  and  sometimes  you  want  to  tie 
on  two  babies  at  once.  You  are  ready  for  them  ;  and  another  thing,  they  are  up  in  a  good 
light,  high  enough,  so  you  can  easily  work  your  camera  on  them.  Then  have  the  mother 
sit  down  aside  of  the  lounge  so  the  baby  can  see  her,  but  she  is  not  to  talk  nor  look  at  the 
child  if  it  is  quiet,  and  if  it  is  inclined  to  be  a  little  shy,  talk  to  the  mother  instead  of  the 
child,  and  the  failures  will  be  few. — FORRESTER  CLARK. 

232.  Let  us  now  give  our  attention  to  the  drapery.  The  arranging  of  the  draperies 
depends  much  upon  the  quality  of  the  stuff.  Thin,  light  stuff  produces  smaller  folds,  and 
plaits  in  greater  quantity  than  heavy,  thick,  or  stiff  material.  Furthermore,  it  is  to  be 
considered  whether  the  garment  covers  large  or  small  forms,  or  whether  it  hangs  down  loose 
and  free.  Large  forms  must  not  be  interrupted  by  small  folds,  and  the  drapery  should 
indicate  whether  the  covered  part  is  of  an  angular,  or  round,  or  plain,  or  curved  shape,  for 
all  folds  ought  to  indicate  their  cause,  whether  the  same  is  the  proper  heaviness  of  the  mate- 
rial, or  is  produced  through  draught,  pressure,  or  other  influences.  All  folds  form  triangles-, 
and  the  reason  of  this  is,  that  a  garment  is  always  trying  to  expand;  if  it  is  forced  from  one 
side  to  contract,  it  expands  on  the  other  side  in  the  same  measure.  Folds  must,  therefore, 
never  appear  round  or  quadrangular,  for  the  quadrangular  shape  is  insufferable,  except  when 
it  forms  two  divided  triangles.  It  is  also  bad  taste  to  place  two  folds  of  equal  size,  shape,  and 
illumination  side  by  side.  Upon  the  garment  of  a  living  person,  the  movement  of  his 
limbs  is  the  only  cause  of  the  position  and  variety  of  the  folds.  The  ancients  arranged 
large  folds  upon  large  parts  of  the  human  body,  and  did  not  suffer  the  same  to  be  interrupted 
by  smaller  folds.  If  they  were  forced  by  the  nature  of  the  garment  to  do  it,  they  made  the 


ACCESSORIES    AND    LIGHT.  179 

233.  And  before  the  lens  is  uncovered,  and  the  exposure  made,  be  very 
certain  that  the  eyes  of  the  sitter  are  in  keeping  with  all  the  rest.  They 
may  spoil  all,  if  wrongly  directed.  Once  more,  measure  the  picture  by 
the  principles  laid  down  in  Lesson  A,  and  if  it  is  right — expose  ! 

small  transverse  folds  so  small  and  little  raised,  that  it  was  obvious  they  could  not  indicate 
main  parts. 

In  all  cases  where  the  garment  does  not  strictly  correspond  with  the  naked  form  it  covers, 
and  does  not  follow  the  direction  of  the  muscles,  the  casting  of  the  draperies  will  be  defective. 
Our  modern  fashion  renders  it  often  impossible  to  discern  the  shape  of  the  body  under  the 
garment,  and  we  are  forced  to  make  concessions  to  the  sway  of  fashion  ;  but  in  cases  where 
unbecoming  folds  have  been  caused  through  bad  cutting,  or  casual  pressure,  or  draught,  and 
the  photographer  could  not  avoid  them  in  the  arrangement,  it  is  our  task  to  remedy  the 
defects  in  the  picture.  Next  to  the  lightness  or  heaviness,  the  transparency  or  opacity  of 
the  material,  its  lustre  or  roughness  is  of  importance ;  also  its  design  and  colors  are  main 
factors.  Velvet  ought  to  be  well  distinguished  from  cotton,  silk  from  satin,  etc.  White 
garments  and  linen  taken  in  glaring  light  appear  usually  without  any  medium  tone,  hardly, 
so  that  the  shade  is  slightly  indicated,  and  the  retoucher  has  many  difficulties  to  fill  out  the 
empty  space,  so  that  his  sketchings  may  look  natural.  The  photographer  ought  always  to  try 
to  prevent  this  evil  through  subdued  illumination,  as  the  harmony  in  the  picture  is  disturbed 
by  large  light  masses. — HANS  HARTMAN. 

233.  We  will  suppose  the  sitter  to  be  the  centre  of  a  circle  with  diverging  lines,  like  the 
hub  of  a  wheel,  with  its  radiating  spokes.  Suppose  this  wheel  twenty  feet  in  diameter,  and 
the  spokes  one  foot  apart  at  the  periphery.  The  junction  of  these  spokes  with  the  rim  we 
will  call  points,  like  a  compass. 

Place  the  sitter  at  the  hub,  looking  straight  before  him — body,  face,  and  eyes  to  the  cam- 
era ten  feet  away,  at  the  outer  edge  of  the  circle.  This  may  be  called  a  position  of  neutral- 
ity, impassive,  inactive.  Now,  the  body  remaining  in  front,  the  head  and  eyes  turning  to 
the  right  or  left,  if  ever  so  little,  there  begins  to  be  expressed  activity,  thought,  emotion  ;  in 
which  the  eyes  play  an  important  part,  and  a  part  that  may  be  largely  brought  under  con- 
trol, else  there  were  no  use  describing  it. 

To  illustrate — if  the  head  be  turned  two  points  away  from  the  camera,  the  body  remain- 
ing front,  the  eyes  to  express  an  easy,  animated,  but  not  deeply  interested  attention,  should 
be  turned  nearly  to  the  third  point.  When  the  head  turns  from  the  body  to  the  fourth 
point,  the  eyes  to  correspond  should  turn  nearly  to  the  sixth,  thus  expressing  the  same  kind 
of  easy,  natural  interest,  but  more  active  and  more  interested  ;  and  this  corresponding  di- 
vergence amounts  nearly  to  a  definite  ratio,  whether  the  turning  be  more  or  less,  being  as 
two  to  one ;  two  of  the  head  from  the  body,  to  one  of  the  eyes  from  the  face.  Or,  in  other 
words,  in  turning  the  eyes  to  an  easy  point  right  or  left,  the  head  naturally  turns  about  two- 
thirds  the  distance. 

This  ratio  of  divergence  we  will  call  normal,  and  we  shall  find  it  giving  about  the  kind 
of  expression  generally  preferred  in  portraiture.  Moreover,  we  shall  see  that  any  deviation 
from  this  normal  relation  immediately  begins  to  express  something  different,  often  some- 
thing not  at  all  desired.  For  instance,  the  body  remaining  front,  with  the  face  and  eyes 
both  turned  full  upon  the  third  or  sixth,  or  any  intermediate  point,  there  would  immediately 
begin  to  appear  an  absorbed,  deeply  interested  gaze,  expressing  anxiety,  surprise,  or  other 


180  WILSON'S   PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

234.  In  addition  to  instructions  given  in  Lesson  A,  a  few  words  may 
not  be  out  of  place  as  to  the  means  used  for  securing  the  effects  of  light 
and  shade  described  as  the  most  desirable.  Resort  may  be  had  to  side- 
screens,  mirrors,  and  reflectors,  provided  they  are  employed  for  legiti- 
mate effect  only,  and  not  for  experiment  or  in  wild  reaches  after  aston- 
ishing effects  hard  to  understand. 

emotion,  according  to  the  rest  of  the  face  and  action  ;  while  should  the  face  remain  fronting 
with  the  body,  directly  toward  the  camera,  when  the  eyes  turned  two  or  three  points  away, 
there  would  immediately  appear  an  uneasy,  insincere,  jealous,  watching  expression,  not  at 
all  pleasant. 

Varying  the  illustration  by  placing  the  body  fronting  the  third  point  away  from  the  in- 
strument, while  the  face  turned  to  the  first  point  away,  and  the  eyes  into  the  camera,  you 
will  have  an  easy,  direct,  sincere,  manly  attention  ;  while,  if  you  place  head  and  body  both 
fronting  point  three,  when  the  eyes  are  turned  full  upon  the  camera,  you  obtain  at  once  shy- 
ness, coquetry,  suspicion,  or  other  similar  expression,  according  to  the  other  facial  action. 
Then,  if  you  front  the  body  upon  three,  while  face  and  eyes  both  turn  full  upon  the  camera, 
there  would  begin  to  appear  a  bold,  domineering,  look-you-out-of-countenance  sort  of  expres- 
sion, or  similar  undesirable  effect. 

The  same  principle  holds  good  in  looking  upward  ;  for  instance,  the  head  slightly  raised, 
with  the  eyes  about  half  as  much  more,  may  express  spiritual  contemplation,  adoration,  sup- 
plication, etc.,  according  to  the  accompaniment,  while  the  face  remaining  level  or  slightly 
drooped,  with  the  eyes  still  turned  upward,  looking  as  they  must  somewhat  from  under  the 
eyebrows,  will  express  a  cowardly  shrinking,  a  sinister  watching,  or  suppressed  anger,  ac- 
cording to  the  other  features. 

These  hints  might  be  greatly  elaborated,  but  the  intelligent  beginner  will  place  his  camera 
before  the  sitter  and  multiply  these  illustrations  to  any  extent.  The  main  thing  to  thoroughly 
understand  is  that  in  every  modification  and  turn  of  position,  these  relations  of  the  eyes  and 
face  will  express  something,  and  if  not  controlled  to  express  what  is  desired,  may  give  ex- 
pressions quite  undesirable. — E.  K.  HOUGH. 

234.  If,  then,  the  results  of  a  side  reflection  are  so  disastrous,  should  it  not  be  discarded 
altogether  ?  We  think  not,  and  will  try  to  show  its  proper  use,  which  is  to  soften  the  shadows 
and  make  them  transparent  with  delicate  reflected  lights,  which,  while  they  may  oppose  the 
principal  light,  yet  have  no  vigorous  contention  with  it,  and  are  mere  echoes  of  its  intensity. 
These  little  reflected  lights,  like  the  reverberations  of  a  musical  sound  from  the  walls  of  a 
room,  really  strengthen  and  enrich  the  original  tone.  Without  them  the  shadows,  even 
if  well  worked  out,  become  rigid,  and  give  a  too  solid,  hard  appearance  to  the  head. 

The  proper  effect  is  often  produced  without  actually  employing  a  white  screen,  but  that  is 
because  the  walls  and  objects  in  the  operating-room  take  its  place  and  supply  the  reflections. 
Their  influence  is  always  felt,  and  in  bright  weather  is  usually  quite  sufficient,  if  the  face  is 
placed  at  a  proper  angle  to  the  light;  unless  we  are  taking  a  shadow  picture,  when  a  regular 
side-screen  is  indispensable,  probably  without  exception. — W.  J.  BAKER. 

I  have  had  occasion  to  work  under  high  skylights,  and  small  ones,  and  an  expedient  that 
I  have  resorted  to  is  to  use  a  mirror.  It  is  a  good  thing  to  have  in  every  studio.  You  can 
throw  off  the  top-light  as  much  as  you  like,  and  use  the  mirror,  and  hang  it  on  the  screen-0. 


ACCESSORIES    AND    LIGHT.  181 

235.  Inward  and  outward  screens,  for  top  and  side,  have  already  been 
described  in  Lesson  J.  There  is  no  end  to  the  way  in  which  they  may 
be  employed,  and  some  of  the  best  thoughts  on  the  subject  are  given  in 
the  notes.  If  you  have  once  decided  in  your  mind  what  is  the  best  effect 
to  obtain  for  the  subject  in  hand,  and  you  cannot  get  it  by  the  usual 
means  of  lighting,  then  resort  can  be  had  to  the  hand-screen  with  much 
good  effect  during  a  whole  or  part  of  the  exposure. 

You  can  shut  off  the  light  from  the  top-light  and  use  your  side-light.  You  can  put  it  on 
either  side  you  please  j  shut  off  the  top-light  entirely,  or  get  a  little  of  it — enough  to  soften 
your  shadows.— ALEXANDER  HESLER. 

235.  Doubtless  ninety  per  cent,  of  all  the  photographic  studios  in  the  world  are  suffi- 
ciently well  lighted  to  allow  of  the  production  in  them  of  good  pictures,  provided  the  light 
entering  them  is  managed  and  directed  in  the  best  manner  practicable.  And  in  this  man- 
agement the  arrangement  of  the  window-curtains  is  of  great  and  paramount  importance,  a 
feature  which,  in  many  cases,  seems  to  have  been  overlooked  or  greatly  neglected,  and  the 
management  of  the  light  more  generally  sought  through  the  means  of  shades  or  screens,  in 
frames,  or  in  the  hands  of  the  operator.  I  am  acquainted  with  several  large  establishments 
in  which  the  curtains  are  arranged  on  rollers  at  the  top  or  bottom  of  the  light,  both  side  and 
top,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  render  a  large  portion  of  the  window  practically  useless,  besides 
incumbering  the  places  with  a  maze  of  rollers  and  cords  often  out  of  order,  and  requiring 
considerable  skill  and  a  large  amount  of  time  for  their  adjustment. 

During  the  last  eight  years  I  have  used,  with  perfect  satisfaction,  a  simple  system  which 
allows  any  part  or  all  the  window  surface  to  be  opened  or  closed,  as  may  be  desirable.  This 
is  accomplished  by  single  widths  of  colored  muslin  which  run  across  the  light  upon  small 
copper  wire,  passing  through  rings  upon  each  edge  of  the  muslin.  The  strips  or  widths  of 
muslin  should  overlap  each  other  some  three  or  four  inches,  or  enough  to  prevent  any  open 
spaces  between  them.  The  wires  are  readily  strained  sufficiently  tight  by  using  screw-eyes 
instead  of  nails  in  putting  them  up.  I  prefer  copper  wire,  as  its  soft,  tough  properties  offer 
less  resistance  to  the  twist  which  is  caused  by  turning  in  the  screw-eyes.  It  does  not  corrode, 
and  prevent  the  rings  from  sliding  easily,  as  is  often  the  case  with  iron  wire.  Neither  does  it 
break  in  taking  down,  whenever  the  curtains  need  washing  to  remove  stains  or  dust.  In 
my  own  studio  I  have  two  sets  of  light  curtains  arranged  by  this  method,  one  set  over  the 
other  ;  by  this  means  I  am  able  to  modify  the  light,  whatever  its  intensity,  by  using  either 
one  or  both  sets,  according  to  the  light  or  cloudy  state  of  the  weather.  By  this  system  all 
cords,  pulleys,  and  rollers  are  discarded,  the  curtains  always  remain  where  placed.  They 
are  easily  adjusted  to  position  in  a  moment's  time  by  the  use  of  an  ordinary  fishing-rod,  or 
three-quarter  inch  square  strip  from  the  edge  of  a  long  board.  By  their  use  the  stronger 
light  may  be  admitted  at  any  corner,  or  along  either  side  or  end  of  the  window,  or  even  in 
the  centre  when  desired,  as  for  statuary  or  small  objects.  I  believe  that  any  one,  after 
adopting  this  method,  will  have  no  desire  to  return  to  any  other  system  with  which  I  am 
acquainted.  Upon  trial  many  will  doubtless  be  surprised  at  the  results  produced  by  an  ap- 
parently weak  light  fully  utilized.  While  the  light  is  easy  and  pleasant  for  the  sitter,  the 
chemical  effect  is  of  such  a  delicate  nature  as  to  far  surpass  all  that  can  be  produced  in  the 
flooded  glare  of  the  ordinary  operating-room. — 0.  G.  MASON. 


182  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

236.  At  certain  times  of  the  year  and  day,  direct  sunlight,  or  reflec- 
tions from  objects  altogether  outside  of  the  studio,  often  give  great  an- 
noyance— so  great,  sometimes,  as  to  render  the  studio  useless  for  a  few 
hours.  If  the  screens  and  curtains  do  not  suffice,  resort  may  he  had  to 
coating  the  glass,  though  care  should  he  had  that  the  light  is  not  retarded 
too  much  by  such  applications.  There  is  this  to  be  remembered  when 
you  apply  to  any  of  these  helps  in  lighting  the  model :  strive  for  natu- 
ral effects — effects  which,  when  accomplished,  will  show  intent — purpose — 
feeling — and  not  serve  as  puzzles  to  the  critic  and  mysteries  to  the  pa- 
tron. Perhaps  there  is  more  wildness  shown  in  this  matter  of  lighting 
than  in  any  other  department  of  photography ;  but,  as  ignorance  is  usu- 
ally the  cause  of  it,  there  is  hope ;  and  when  the  photographer  begins  to 
yield  to  the  influence  of  the  law,  there  is.  hope  for  him  also.  Pass  your 
crudeness  into  the  muffle,  friends,  and  you  may  see  it  come  out  changed 
for  the  better. 

236.  A  very  simple  way*to  avoid  reflections  of  sunlight,  which  so  often  annoy  us,  is  as 
follows :  Cover  the  obnoxious  panes  with  starch-paste  until  they  are  dull  or  half  transparent. 
It  may  be  put  on  thick  or  thin,  and  in  winter,  when  the  sun  is  low  and  all  the  light  is  wanted, 
warm  water  will  remove  it.  Starch-paste  is  a  good  thing  to  stand  by,  and  it  secures  a  very 
complete  union  between  card- board  and  paper,  but,  as  some  do  not  like  it,  the  following  may 
be  of  use  for  producing  a  good  white  paste  (it  sticks  like  the  shirt  of  Nessus) :  A  solution  of 
two  and  a  half  ounces  of  gum-arabic  in  warm  water  is  thickened  to  a  paste  with  wheat  flour  ; 
to  this  add  a  solution  of  alum  and  sugar  of  lead,  seventeen  hundred  and  twenty-eight  grains 
each,  in  the  water,  is  heated  and  stirred  about  to  boil,  and  is  then  cooled.  It  may  be 
thinned,  if  necessary,  with  the  gum  solution.  Blue-frosting  used  to  be  a  great  favorite 
among  photographers,  but  I  rarely  see  it  now  upon  a  skylight.  I  frequently  see  the 
slovenly  remains  of  it;  and,  as  it  seems  to  be  difficult  for  some  photographers  to  get  it  off 
their  glass,  I  would  recommend  the  following  as  very  effective:  Soft-soap  mixed  with  a 
solution  of  potash  or  caustic  soda,  or  pearlash  and  slaked  lime  mixed  with  sufficient  water  to 
form  a  paste.  It  may  be  laid  on  with  a  brush  or  rag,  and  when  left  for  some  hours  will 
render  the  removal  of  blue-frosting  very  easy. — J.  GBASSHoyr. 


LESSON   L. 

MANAGING     THE     MODEL. 

237.  THE  studio  may  be  constructed  in  the  most  skilful,  workmanlike, 
and  expensive  manner,  and  yet  be  wasted  upon  its  owner,  unless  he  be 
possessed  of  skill  sufficient  to  manage  it.     Experience,  actual  and  hard, 
only  can  supply  this;    but  it  is  a  fascinating  study,  and  if  prosecuted 
with  feeling,  it  will  reciprocate  and  repay  to  your  entire  satisfaction  and 
delight.     The  posing  and  lighting,  or  managing  of  the  model,  then,  must 
not  fail  to  have  consideration  here. 

238.  Direct,  diffused,  and  reflected  light  are  the  three  qualities  or  forms 
which  are  to  be  moulded  or  managed  by  the  skill  of  the  photo-artist,  to 
produce  the  results  he  desires.     The  first  needs  the  most  careful  hand- 

237.  Light  is  the  element  of  life,  the  drawing-pencil  of  the  photographer.  It  is  the 
brush  with  which  he  paints.  For  him  a  thorough  knowledge  of  this  element  is  as  important 
as  it  is  for  the  painter  to  possess  an  exact  knowledge  of  his  colors. — DR.  H.  YOGEL. 

What  requisites  must  I  have  to  do  as  good  photographic  work  as  can  be  done  at  our 
present  stage  of  enlightenment,  is  a  question  finding  lodgment  in  every  true  photographer's 
mind  of  to-day.  We  believe  that  first  of  all  we  must  have  a  good  light,  and  experience 
enough  to  know  how  to  use  it,  and  what  its  capabilities  are.  In  defining  a  "good  light,"  I 
would  say  the  one  is  best  which  will  work  the  most  uniform,  and  needs  the  least  array  of 
curtain  appurtenances,  and  is  most  simple  to  manage. — Mrs.  E.  N.  LOCKWOOD. 

Light  is  an  emanation,  or  something  which  proceeds  from  bodies  by  means  of  which  they 
are  made  visible.  All  bodies  may  be  divided  into  self-luminous  and  non-luminous.  Self- 
luminous  bodies  are  those  which  have  the  power  of  discharging  light.  Non-luminous  bodies 
are  those  which  have  not  the  power  of  discharging  light.  One  non-luminous  body  may 
receive  light  from  another  non-luminous  body  and  discharge  it  upon  a  third ;  but  the  light 
must  originally  come  from  some  self-luminous  body.  When  a  lighted  candle  is  brought 
into  a  dark  room,  the  form  of  the  flame  is  seen  by  its  own  light,  and  the  objects  in  the  room 
are  made  visible  by  the  light  which  they  receive  from  the  candle  and  again  throw  back. 
Those  objects  on  which  the  light  of  the  candle  does  not  fall  receive  reflected  light. 

A  diffused  light  will  not  give  you  shadows;  it  will  not  give  you  roundness;  it  will  not 
give  you  any  relief;  it  will  not  give  you  form,  because,  if  you  could  light  everything  here  in 
this  room,  all  exactly  of  the  same  strength,  it  would  be  just  like  a  piece  of  white  paper, 
there  would  not  be  anything  like  form  to  be  seen  here.  If  you  light  the  form  of  the  column 
on  the  wall  just  as  light  on  this  side  as  on  the  other,  there  will  be  no  shadow  there.  If  you 
light  the  centre  of  it  as  much  as  the  edge,  you  will  not  see  any  form  at  all. — A.  S.  SOUTHWORTH. 

(183) 


184  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

ling  and  judicious  application;  the  second  is  of  the  most  service,  and 
the  last  conies  in  as  a  helper  in  time  of  need,  for  reasons  that  vary  with 
circumstances,  hut  usually  to  supply  light  where  it  cannot  otherwise  he  had. 
239.  Various  as  are  the  effects  procurahle  under  any  skylight,  just 
as  varied  are  the  means  employable  to  produce  them.  Shade  as  well  as 
light  is  necessary  to  secure  roundness  and  brilliancy  of  effect.  There 
should  be  gradation  from  one  to  the  other,  and  also  a  complete  harmony 
between  them.  Contrast  to  a  moderate  degree  is  requisite,  and  now  and 
then  masses  of  light  may  be  used,  and  of  shadow  as  well,  to  secure  the 
most  charming  effects. 

239.  It  is  a  rule  with  portrait  painters  to  represent  their  sitters  in  a  light,  falling  from  the 
side,  at  an  angle  of  about  forty-five  degrees.  This  gives  the  best  light  for  the  majority  of 
faces,  and  to  secure  such  a  light  should  be  the  aim  in  constructing  the  light  for  a  studio. — 
L.  G  BIGELOW. 

Of  the  importance  of  effectively  "lighting  the  sitter,"  there  will  not  be  two  opinions 
amongst  photographic  artists,  therefore  our  hints  will  tend  to  show  how  this  desirable  end 
may  be  attained,  rather  than  to  discuss  the  principles  upon  which  it  should  be  based.  Yet, 
we  would  say,  in  passing,  that  a  monochrome  picture  must  necessarily  depend  more  upon 
its  effect  of  light  and  shade  for  producing  lasting  pleasure  than  upon  any  other  quality. 
This  is  a  point  upon  which  photographers  would  do  well  to  ponder.  Why  is  it  that  a  pho- 
tograph or  print,  which  at  first  struck  you  as  possessing  considerable  merit,  does  not 
continue  to  yield  a  feast  to  the  eye?  The  pose  and  expression  are  good,  the  manipulation  is 
in  all  points  satisfactory,  and  yet  you  soon  grow  tired  of  it.  Is  it  that  the  subject  is  un- 
interesting? By  no  means.  The  idea  is  as  happy  in  its  conception  as  in  execution.  Why, 
then,  does  it  not  continue  to  give  satisfaction  to  the  mind  ?  Just  because  it  lacks  that  charm 
which  harmony  of  light  and  shade  produces.  What  is  harmony  of  light  and  shade  ?  Of 
sound  and  color — you  can  understand  that  term  ;  but  of  mere  light  and  shade — what  does  it 
mean  ?  The  term  as  applied  to  sound  means  concord,  agreement ;  and  why  should  this  not 
apply  to  a  scale  of  shades,  from  the  faintest  to  the  deepest,  and  their  blending  together  so  as  not 
to  irritate  the  sensitive  eye  ?  Yet,  it  is  not,  after  all,  a  mere  harmonious  scale  of  sounds  which 
gives  pleasure  to  the  ear,  but  the  skilful  use  of  these  sounds,  contrasting,  blending,  epeatring  ; 
so  with  the  scale  of  shades  in  a  picture,  they  must  be  worked  into  a  tune,  and  the  more  skill 
and  "feeling"  exercised  in  doing  this,  the  more  lasting  will  be  the  pleasure  excited. 

What  we  want,  then,  in  the  first  place,  is  a  highly  cultivated  as  well  as  natural  perception 
of  this  kind  of  beauty.  And,  in  the  second  place,  we  want  the  means  at  our  disposal  for 
thoroughly  carrying  out  our  conceptions  of  it.  It  is  to  assist  in  the  accomplishment  of  the 
latter  that  the  above  was  written. — J.  M.  BURGESS. 

Suppose  a  ball  to  be  the  object  on  which  the  light  falls  in  a  direction  of  forty-five  degrees, 
or  the  diagonal  of  a  square,  and  at  a  right  angle  from  the  ball  to  the  place  where  you  stand, 
one-half  the  ball  will  appear  illuminated  and  the  other  dark.  This  state  of  the  two  hemi- 
spheres constitutes  the  two  masses  of  light  and  shade.  In  the  centre  of  the  mass  of  light 
falls  the  focus  of  illumination  on  the  ball,  between  the  centre  of  the  illumination  and  the 
circle  of  the  ball.  Where  the  illumination  reaches  its  extremity,  lies  what  may  be  called 


MANAGING    THE    MODEL.  185 

240.  "  And  when  her  royal  highness,  the  model,  presents  herself  to 
me  for  a  pose,  how  am  I  to  know  how  best  to  treat  her?''  queries  the 
photographer  mentally.      Here  again  conies  good  your  intuitions — the 
power  of  inspiration  which  you  must  cajole  into  your  service,     ^"ever 
allow  yourself  to  falter,  any  way,  at  such  a  conundrum.      If  you  have 
heart  for  the  work,  the  ideas  will  come  to  you,  and  the  first  lesson  of  this 
book  is  ever  at  your  service.     You  should  be  full  of  it  before  you  face 
any  sort  of  a  model. 

241.  In  managing  your  curtains  and  reflectors,  act  not  wildly.     Natu- 
ralness is  what  should  be  sought  after,  and  it  is  a  mistake  to  light  a  model 

the  transparent  tint  or  shade :  and  between  this  and  the  dark  side  lies  what  is  called  the 
aerial  tint  or  middle  tint.  The  point  of  darkness,  the  extreme  shade,  is  directly  opposite 
the  focus  of  illumination,  between  which  and  the  aerial  tint  lies  the  tint  of  reflection  or 
reflected  light.  If  the  ball  rests  on  a  plane,  it  will  cast  a  shadow  equal  in  length  to  one 
diameter  and  a  quarter  of  the  ball.  That  shadow  will  be  darker  than  the  shade  on  the  ball, 
and  the  darkest  part  will  be  where  the  plane  and  ball  come  in  contact. — M.  A.  DWIOHT. 

240.  I  think  the  first  thing  in  posing,  practically  speaking,  is  to  take  a  rapid  survey  of  the 
sitter,  a  lady,  for  instance,  to  decide  whether  we  take  a  full  or  three-quarters  length  ;  a  sit- 
ting or  standing;  head  and  shoulders;  which  side  of  the  face  is  best;   which  side  of  the 
dress,  etc.,  is  most  effective,  and  thus  try  to  secure  the  portrait  having  most  personal  charac- 
teristics in  it,  because  we  know  many  persons  are  recognized  by  their  "  walk  as  well  as  by 
their  conversation." — W.  J.  TOPLEY. 

In  studying  faces  our  aim  should  be  to  find  out  what  view  or  light  best  becomes  it.  This 
should  be  a  constant  study  in  every  gathering  of  people  that  we  sec  ;  we  must  search  for 
effects  of  light  and  shade,  and  beauty  and  harmony  of  form.  When  a  sitter  enters  your 
studio,  at  once  look  him  over,  read  him,  watch  for  anything  pleasing  or  beautiful,  and  when 
he  comes  to  your  chair,  use  all  your  art  to  catch  and  hold  it. — ALEXANDER  HESLER. 

It  appears  that  many  photographers  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  the  parts  of  the  face 
farthest  from  the  eye  should  be  darkest  in  tone,  and  the  parts  nearest  should  be  the  lightest, 
with  a  gradation  of  tone  from  the  light  to  the  dark  parts.  I  have  seen  many  photographs 
by  those  high  in  the  profession,  in  which  the  reverse  of  the  above  is  strikingly  observable, 
that  is,  the  back  part  of  the  cheek  would  be  lighter  than  the  front  part.  By  a  little  thought, 
you  will  see  that  this  is  an  error. — FRANK  JEWELL. 

I  think  expression  in  a  portrait  of  the  first  importance,  and  I  consider  that  a  master 
portraitist  should  be  able  to  infuse  any  expression  he  chooses  into  a  portrait.  Expression 
belongs  to  the  whole  body  as  well  as  to  the  face.  I  have  often  thought  I  should  try  to 
produce  a  picture,  the  story  or  meaning  of  which  should  be  plain,  by  using  lay  figures  or 
marionettes  only  for  the  models,  the  whole  story  being  told  by  the  position  and  action  of 
the  figures.  How  is  it  that  so  many  photographers  seem  to  have  but  two  or  three  positions  at 
most  for  their  sitters  ? — O.  G.  KEJLANDER. 

241.  The  dress  should  give  a  mass  either  decidedly  above  or  below  that  of  the  background. 
If  above,  care  should  be  taken  that  it  does  not  overweigh  the  light  mass  of  the  face,  and 
sink  the  most  important  part  of  the  picture  into  insignificance.     With  care,  almost  any 


186  WILSON'S    PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

in  any  striking,  fancy  way  which  never  occurs  in  nature.  You  are  to 
strive  for  likenesses,  and  not  distortions  and  caricatures.  Therefore,  study 
the  light  effects  upon  face  and  figure,  and  then  go  to  your  ground-glass. 
The  drapery  too  is  of  great  importance,  and  the  background  must  also 
have  careful  attention.  Indeed,  thoughtful  care — all  through. 

white  drapery  can  be  used,  and  particularly  with  the  shadow  picture  gives  beautiful  effects. 
Turning  the  shoulders  from  the  light,  shielding  the  dress  from  the  light  by  an  opaque  screen, 
subduing  the  general  illumination,  are  very  effective  means  for  producing  softness  and 
securing  detail  in  white  drapery. — "W.  J.  BAKER. 

The  whole  system  of  lighting  a  subject  for  a  photographic  portrait  is  contained  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentence :  The  light  must  be  properly  balanced,  the  exposure  sufficient  to  bear  out  the 
lighting,  and  the  development  regulated  to  the  exposure.  No  one  of  these  three  items  can 
be  in  error  without  destroying,  with  mathematical  certainty,  the  perfect  result.  You  may 
approximate,  and  produce  good  pictures,  but  not  the  best.  Place  a  sitter  under  an  uncurtained 
light,  even  in  the  most  favorable  position  possible,  and  we  at  once  see  that  one  side  of  the 
face  is  in  a  very  strong  light,  and  the  other  in  a  very  strong  shadow.  "We  can  hardly  see 
any  detail  in  the  shadow,  except  we  squint  the  eyes  and  shut  out  the  volume  of  light  which 
confuses  our  vision  (as  it  will  also  that  of  the  lens),  then  we  see  some  of  the  details.  Now. 
take  a  large  card-board  and  hold  it  to  the  side  of  your  face,  nearest  the  direction  from  which 
the  light  comes,  and  hold  it  also  in  such  a  manner  that  you  see  only  the  shadow  side  of  the 
sitter's  face,  and  observe  how,  at  the  instant  the  light  side  of  the  face  is  obscured  by  the  in- 
terposition of  the  card-board,  the  shadow  seems  to  lighten  and  become  transparent.  We 
perceive  at  once,  from  this  experiment,  that  the  shaded  side  of  the  face  is  not  in  the  deep 
shadow  it  seemed  to  be,  but  that  the  force  of  contrast  caused  it  to  appear  so ;  and  practically, 
for  all  purposes  of  photography,  it  is  so,  for  we  cannot  make  our  lenses  squint.  You  will  see 
by  this  that  by  balance  I  mean  an  even  illumination  or  light,  so  managed  that  the  contrasts 
shall  not  be  white  and  black. — L.  G.  BIGELOW. 

The  grand  point  for  those  who  have  not  paid  sufficient  attention  to  this  most  important  of 
photographic  questions,  is  to  accustom  the  eye  by  constant  watching — out  of  the  studio  as  well 
as  in  it — for  any  unusual  effect  of  light  on  the  human  face  which  may  happen  to  be  pleasing, 
and  at  once  to  analyze,  as  far  as  possible,  the  cause.  I  shall  best  further  my  object,  before 
I  speak  of  special  studio  arrangements,  by  describing  two  extremes  of  light,  one  favoring 
perfect  relief,  but  with  contrasts  too  strong  for  general  photographic  purposes,  and  the  other 
— unfortunately,  too  common  among  photographers — producing  flatness  and  almost  total 
absence  of  texture.  By  putting  these  two  extremes  side  by  side,  I  shall  the  more  readily 
make  clear  what  I  desire  to  say.  Those  who  have  been  in  the  studio  of  the  sculptor  for  the 
first  time  will  have  been  struck  by  the  wonderful  delicacy  and  relief  of  any  work  in  marble 
which  may  happen  to  be  in  hand.  Should  his  curiosity  lead  him  to  watch  the  effect  of  the 
same  kind  of  light  on  the  human  head  and  bust,  he  will  be  equally  delighted  with  the  novel 
effect  of  light  and  shade  before  him.  He  will  notice  a  delicacy  and  texture  quite  unusual  in 
ordinary  lights,  combined  with  the  most  perfect  relief.  The  whole  effect  will  be  most  striking 
and  forcible ;  but  after  some  time  spent  in  close  observation,  he  will  find  that,  whilst  the  high 
lights  and  those  next  approaching  to  them  are  wonderfully  rendered,  the  deepest  shadows, 
and  those  allied  to  them,  are  much  too  heavy  for  photographic  purposes.  The  observer  will 
feel  less  of  this,  however,  if  the  subject  examined  should  happen  to  be  a  blonde  dressed  in 


MANAGING   THE    MODEL.  187 

242.  The  time  of  exposure  must  next  be  considered.  Too  much  impa- 
tience is  indulged  in  here.  Take  enough  exposure,  whenever  the  subject 
in  hand  will  permit  it.  Do  not  under  time,  if  you  can  help  it.  To  secure 
the  proper  brilliancy  and  charm  of  effect,  time  must  be  given.  Effect  first, 
and  time  afterwards  is  the  rule.  Yea,  effects  at  any  sacrifice,  rather  than 
sacrifice  them  for  the  sake  of  rendering  it  a  little  easier  for  your  model. 
If  there  is  a  prevailing  fault  among  photographers,  it  is  that  of  undertiming. 

light  drapery.  A  little  investigation  will  therefore  show  that  the  marble,  being  a  semi- 
transparent  substance,  permits — indeed  requires — this  strong  treatment  in  order  to  produce 
the  proper  amount  of  relief,  and  that,  in  the  case  of  the  blonde  with  the  drapery  light  in 
color,  the  shadows  are  softened  by  the  reflections  carried  into  them,  and  thus  reducing  their 
intensity.  Every  one  must,  at  some  time  or  other,  have  been  struck  with  the  wonderful 
effect  of  relief  combined  with  perfect  transparency  in  the  half-shadows,  when  a  lady,  dressed 
in  a  very  light  diaphanous  material,  has  chanced  to  be  placed  near  an  open  window  in  a  well- 
lit  room.  The  effect  is  totally  different  if  a  swarthy,  black-bearded  man,  in  the  mournful 
livery  common  to  this  age,  should  happen  to  be  seen  under  precisely  similar  circumstances. 
In  the  latter  case  there  are  no  reflections  to  help  out  the  effect;  hence  the  difference.  I  may 
say  here  that  the  most  perfect  effects  of  lighting  I  have  ever  seen  have  been  produced  at  a 
lofty  side- window,  the  lower  portion  of  which  was  covered  with  semi-transparent  material, 
a  suitable  system  of  reflectors  being  used  to  carry  light  into  the  deepest  shadows  to  lessen  the 
contrast. — VALENTINE  BLANCHARD. 

242.  It  is  an  unquestionable  fact  that  the  most  brilliant  image  on  the  ground-glass  is 
produced  by  lenses  having  the  smallest  reflecting  surface  adapted  to  a  well-blackened  camera. 
It  is,  also,  evident  that,  when  ail  the  rays  but  those  forming  the  part  of  the  image  depicted 
on  the  ground-glass  are  excluded  by  means  of  a  hood  or  cone,  the  image  will  gain  in  vigor 
and  brilliancy.  The  question  whether  it  will  not,  in  certain  cases,  be  an  advantage  to 
sacrifice  some  of  this  brilliancy  for  the  sake  of  rapidity  of  action,  is  one  which  is  submitted 
to  the  thoughts  and  consideration  of  photographers. — CHARLES  WALDACK. 

Pictures  taken  with  an  appreciable  exposure  are,  according  to  the  experience  of  the 
writer,  successful  in  far  larger  proportion  than  those  done  very  rapidly.  As  examples  may  be 
quoted  the  now  well-known  shadow  or  Kembrandt  pictures,  having  a  large  part  of  both  face 
and  figure  in  shadow.  From  the  light  being  admitted  only  from  a  contracted  opening  in 
doing  these  photographs,  and  the  illumination  of  the  shadow  portion  being  derived  only 
from  a  reflector,  a  far  longer  exposure  is  requisite  than  for  the  usual  class  of  pictures,  yet 
does  an  unprecedented  success  attend  their  production  in  their  great  approval  by  the  public. 
It  is  in  the  expression  that  the  great  power  here  lies ;  the  larger  proportion  of  the  face  is 
simply  illumined  by  a  very  soft  light,  giving  complete  repose  of  appearance,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  rendering  very  easy  the  operation  of  sitting,  which  is  often  felt  by  sitters  to  be 
so  painful. — SAMUEL  FRY. 

Let  those  who  are  not  satisfied  with  their  results  proceed  to  cover  up  their  top-lights  and 
windows  with  very  transparent  material,  say  tracing-paper,  or,  better  still,  a  mixture  of 
flake-white  mastic  varnish  and  turpentine,  until  the  pure  light  admitted  on  the  sitter  from 
the  top  and  side,  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  each  way,  does  not  exceed  eight  feet  square 
for  a  tolerably  lofty  studio,  and  even  less  than  this  under  some  circumstances,  and  I  am 


188  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

243.  There  are  various  "  dodges  "  practised  for  the  shortening  of  the 
exposure,  and,  as  will  he  seen  in  the  lesson  on  the  manipulations  of  the 
plates,  there  are  "  quick  "  processes  given.  They  are  of  questionable  ad- 
vantage if  the  best  effects  are  desired.  It  is  well,  however,  to  have  all 
these  things  in  mind,  and,  therefore,  record  is  made  of  enough  of  them 
to  serve  all  emergencies. 

assured  they  will  be  astonished  to  find  that,  whilst  the  exposures  are  not  increased  in  any 
material  degree,  the  difference  in  the  results  produced  will  at  once  prove  the  advantages  of 
the  "dodge"  advised. — VALENTINE  BLANCHARD. 

243.  The  dodge  of  allowing  the  light  to  act  slightly  on  the  plate,  to  be  able  to  do  with  a 
shorter  exposure,  is,  however,  not  to  be  despised,  and  made  use  of  intelligently,  will  do  good 
service.  A  means  which  is  communicated  to  me  by  a  friend,  and  which  I  have  not  seen 
published,  is  to  cover  the  largest  stop  with  white  paper,  and  cut  out  an  opening  the  size  of  the 
stop  generally  used.  The  result  is  a  softer  negative,  with  one-third  or  one-half  less  exposure 
than  if  the  opaque  stop  had  been  used.  This  action  of  diffused  light  lighting  up  the  image, 
and  thus  reducing  the  exposure,  often  takes  place  when  the  photographer  is  not  conscious  of 
it.  Years  ago,  when  it  was  customary  to  make  negatives  of  vignettes  against  a  white 
background,  it  was  found  the  exposure  was  considerably  reduced.  Again,  the  image  may 
be  lighted  by  reflection  from  the  sides  of  the  camera  and  from  the  surface  of  the  lenses. 
The  lighter  parts  of  an  image,  the  sky,  for  instance,  will  reflect  diffused  light  on  the  inside 
of  the  camera,  and  thus  light  up  the  darker  parts.  Any  landscape  photographer  may  have 
observed  that  a  view  with  much  sky  will  require  a  less  exposure  than  one  from  which  the 
sky  is  nearly  excluded.  "We  all  know  that  long  exposure  reduces  contrast.  Suppose  we 
have  before  the  camera  a  country  residence,  with  overhanging  porticos  illuminated  by  a 
strong  summer  sun.  The  contrast  is  painful  to  the  eyes  ;  and  still,  by  giving  a  sufficiently 
long  exposure,  we  can  reduce  it  so  that  the  house  appears  to  be  bathed  in  the  mellow  light 
of  an  Indian  summer  day.  How  much  of  this  may  be  owing  to  the  diffused  light  reflected 
from  the  more  illuminated  parts? — CHARLES  WALDACK. 

I  am  now,  and  have  been  for  years,  using  my  camera  lined  with  white — white  writing 
paper.  The  shadows  are  not  so  hard  and  black,  and  altogether  a  much  more  engraving-like 
effect  is  produced.  If  the  reflected  light  in  the  camera  is  not  sufficient,  it  is  well  to  expose 
the  plate  two  or  three  seconds  through  the  lens  to  a  sheet  of  blue  stuff,  placing  the  stuff  in  a 
diffused  focus,  either  before  or  after  the  picture  is  taken.  This  plan  renders  the  shadows  soft 
and  gray,  doing  away  with  the  hard  black  shadows  which  have  been  so  damaging  to  the  patron- 
age of  the  photographic  art.  In  addition  to  all  these  advantages,  the  camera  lined  with  white 
will  produce  pictures  quicker  by  at  least  ten  seconds  in  the  minute. — JOHN  EASTHAM. 

Difficulty  sometimes  occurs  when  groups  are  to  be  made  of  persons  varying  in  complex- 
ion. It  may  be  overcome  by  giving  the  group  the  proper  exposure  for  the  light  subject, 
and  then  capping  the  lens,  and  allowing  that  one  to  leave  the  group  ;  then  continue  the  ex- 
posure as  long  as  is  required  for  those  remaining.  Care  must  be  taken  that  this  change  may 
be  readily  accomplished  without  disturbing  the  position  of  those  requiring  a  long  exposure, 
and  to  have  no  light  or  white  drapery  behind  the  one  who  is  first  to  leave,  because,  if  dark 
clothing  was  in  front  of  it  before  the  change  was  made,  the  light  drapery  would  show.  A 
black  cloth  may  be  used  to  conceal  what  was  before  covered  by  the  sitter. — E.  Z.  WEBSTER 


LESSOR    M. 


PRINTING     U  X     A  L  B  U  M  E  X     PAPER. 


244.  AFTER  the  negative  is  entirely  finished,  the  important  operation 
of  printing  proofs  from  it  next  occupies  our  attention.  And  right  here 
the  student  needs  to  call  up  his  hest  thoughts  and  exercise  his  utmost 
care.  A  few  years  ago,  it  was  imagined  that  "  any  supernumerary  could 
print,"  and  not  much  attention  was  given  to  this  department  of  photo- 
graphic art-work.  Xow,  however,  the  tables  are  turned.  The  head- 
printer  in  a  well-organized  establishment  ranks  with,  or  next  to,  the 
chief  operator,  and  the  work  of  the  one  requires  the  exercise  of  as  much 
taste  and  skill  as  the  other.  The  printer  should  be  allowed  everything 
of  the  best  quality  to  work  with,  and  have  a  comfortable  room  to  work  in. 

244.  A  photograph  printer  is  worth  his  price  just  in  proportion  as  he  uses  care  in  his 
work.  The  printer  must  be  held  responsible  for  his  silvering,  printing,  and  toning,  with  no 
redress.  He  cannot  lay  the  fault  upon  the  negative  maker,  nor  upon  the  toner.  If  he  un- 
derstands his  business,  he  is  invaluable.  If  he  does  not  understand  it,  he  had  better  turn 
his  attention  to  something  else,  for  I  boldly  assert  that  the  photograph  printer  is  the  most 
important  man  in  a  gallery. — I.  B.  WEBSTER. 

The  size  of  my  printing-room  is  10  x  15  x  10  feet.  A  is  the  printing-shelf,  upon  which  the 
negative-boards  are  placed  out  to  print;  B  is  the  sash  of  glass  through  which  the  light 
enters  on  the  shelf,  and  which  sash  is  kept  in 
place  by  the  hooks,  c ;  D  is  a  window,  which 
swings  back  and  forth  by  means  of  the  hinges  ~D'. 
This  window,  when  closed,  is  fastened  by  the  but- 
ton, E.  This  window  was  arranged  to  permit  the 
printer  to  open  it  in  the  winter  time  and  sweep 
the  snow  from  the  glass,  without  the  trouble  of 
removing  his  frames,  and  then  taking  the  sash 
of  ground-glass  in.  There  is  another  sash  of  plain 
glass  made,  which  is  placed  out  instead  of  the 
ground  one,  when  it  is  so  desired  by  the  printer. 
F  is  the  window-cord  by  which  the  sash  is  pulled 
up  or  let  down.  G  is  the  drawer  in  which  the 
albumen  paper  is  placed  when  it  is  ready  for 
printing  ;  H  is  the  drawer  into  which  the  prints 
are  slipped  through  the  little  aperture  K,  which  is  cut  in  the  bench,  and  supplied  with  a 

(  189) 


FIG.  57. 


190 


WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 


245.  It  is  a  common  fault,  among  employers  especially,  to  devote  too 
FIG.  58.  little  attention   to   the    construction 

of  the  printing  apartments.  They 
should  he  roomy,  well  exposed  to  the 
south,  well  ventilated,  clean,  well  ac- 
coutred, and  provided  with  the  where- 
withal to  produce  results  of  the  hest 
quality.  Prohahly  one  of  the  hest 
models  was  that  constructed  by  the 
Centennial  Photographic  Company, 
attheir  studio  in  the  International  Ex- 
hihition  grounds,  in  1876.  A  draw- 
ing of  a  section  of  it  is  here  given, 
more  especially  to  show  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  rests  for  the  printing- 
boards  during  exposure.  A  por- 
tion of  a  graphic  description  given  of 
it  at  the  time  is  found  below.  Of 
course,  few  need  such  large  printing 
quarters,  but  useful  hints  for  the  construction  of  smaller  ones  may  be 
drawn  from  this.  The  great  trouble  with  many  printing  apartments  is, 
that  they  are  neither  roomy  enough  nor  convenient.  Again,  they  are 

cover  of  tin  or  zinc ;  this  arrangement  saves  opening  the  drawer  so  often  as  to  discolor  the 
whites  of  the  prints  therein  contained  ;  L  is  the  drawer  in  which  the  albumen  paper  is  kept. 
M  is  a  drawer  in  which  the  plain  salted  paper  may  be  placed,  and  in  it  is  another  drawer  in 
which  the  unsalted  paper  can  be  placed;  PP  are  negatives  which  are  to  be  printed,  and 
which,  when  they  are  printed,  are  temporarily  placed  at  P/,  until  they  are  filed  away,  which 
is  done  in  another  room.  The  shelves,  R  R  R,  are  also  negative  shelves,  which  are  used  for 
special  purposes,  such  as  the  "family  negatives,"  etc.  The  wide  shelf  is  made  for  the  stor- 
ing away  of  negative  boards,  vignette  blocks,  porcelain  printing-frames,  etc.,  all  of  which  are 
kept  in  order.  The  filling  of  the  board  is  done  on  the  bench,  T  ;  u  is  the  door  leading  to 
the  silvering-  and  toning-rooms  ;  v  is  the  fuming-box,  which  will  also  be  explained  further 
on  ;  w  is  the  box  in  which  the  old  or  used  hypo-bath  is  poured,  and  zinc  thrown  into  it;  x 
is  a  bench  which  is  used  for  one  thing  arid  another,  also  for  keeping  bottles,  etc.,  upon. — 
C.  W.  HEARN,  in  the  Practical  Printer. 

245.  The  exposure  was  southern.  It  must  have  been  at  least  a  hundred  feet  in  length, 
probably  more.  There  was  a  railing  running  around  the  whole  of  it,  and  a  projecting  roof 
above.  It  must  have  been  Mr.  Wilson  who  conceived  the  idea  of  adapting  the  southern 
exposure  to  printing  purposes.  Large  sashes  were  fitted  from  the  roof  to  the  balustrade, 
inclined  at  a  slight  angle,  the  ends  were  protected  by  partitions,  and  the  result  was  a  long, 
magnificently  lighted  apartment.  The  side-screens,  of  tissue-paper,  were  so  adjusted  as  t</ 


PRINTING    ON    ALBUMEN    PAPER. 


191 


not  provided  with  the  proper  means  of  placing  the  printing-boards  at  a 
proper  angle  in  the  light,  and  no  plan  is  arranged  for  screening  them  or 
for  protecting  weak  negatives  from  ,too  strong  a  light  while  printing. 
Finally,  the  cold  should  be  guarded  against  by  some  arrangement  that 
will  enable  the  room  to  be  closed  in  winter  without  losing  light. 

246.  In  printing  from  the  negative,  one  is  subjected  to  as  many  annoy- 
ances and  failure-causes  as  in  making  it,  but  the  operations  are  so  beau- 
tiful, and  the  results  so  charming,  that  if  the  heart  is  put  into  the  work, 
—if  you  make  yourself  a  part  of  it, — there  is  sufficient  in  it  to  excite  your 

be  made  serviceable  for  changes  of  light,  and  racks  placed  immediately  under  the  windows, 
as  high  as  the  hand  could  reach,  for  the  support  of  the  printing-frames. 

The  racks  for  the  printing-frames  at  the  windows  are  plainly  shown  here;  they  are 
permanently  fixed  under  the  sash,  and  of  such  width  as  to  suit  the  largest  measure  of 
printing-frames,  and  made  so  as  to  hold  the  printing-frames  both  at  the  top  and  bottom,  at 
the  proper  angle  to  the  sun.  In  the  inside  printing-room  the  sashes  are  hung  on  a  swivel 
so  as  to  change  the  angle;  but  those  in  the  portico  or  outer  printing-room  are  permanent. 
All  the  printing,  or  nearly  all,  is  done  under  tissue-paper ;  this  is  a  slow  method,  it  is  true, 
but  the  results  are  far  superior,  and  as  superiority  is  the  principal  aim  in  this  establishment, 
but  little  regard  is  paid  to  anything  that  will  interfere.  By  the  cut  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
printers  stand  side  by  side,  and  behind  them  are  arranged  their  counters,  and  drawers,  and 
changing-boxes,  and  all  the  other  conveniences  of  a  model  printing-room,  and  its  dimensions 
are  so  great  that  one  may  pass  by  the  other,  or  the  overseer  pass  to  and  fro,  without  any 
interference  with  the  work,  and  while  e-verything  is  supplied  of  the  best  quality  and  in  liberal 
quantity,  yet  due  attention  is  given  to  economy,  and  above  all  to  excellence. — J.  L.  GIHON. 

For  those  who  have  regularly  fitted  up  printing-rooms  this  is  not  intended,  but  to  those 
who  are  still  printing  by  the  "cold,  open  win- 
low,"  it  will  surely  be  a  boon.  Having  a  plat- 
form outside  of  my  window,  j  ust  as  a  good  many 
others  have,  some  three  feet  by  four,  I  con- 
ceived the  idea  how  easy  it  would  be  to  get  a 
sash  made  to  fit.  I  got  one  that  just  reached 
from  the  outer  edge  of  my  platform  to  the 
lower  edge  of  the  upper  sash  of  my  window. 
I  then  had  the  ends  enclosed,  and  the  whole 
fitted  up  ;  putting  in  glass  just  as  in  my  sky- 
light. My  window  will  hold  from  fifteen  to 
eighteen  negatives,  and  can  print  in  all  kinds 
of  weather.  Every  artist  knows  that  prints 
are  very  much  improved  by  keeping  them 
warm;  then  it  is  so  comfortable,  and  removes 
much  of  the  unpleasantness  of  the  work  in  winter  time. — J.  S.  YOUNG. 

It  is  much  to  be  desired  that  more  intelligence  be  imparted  into  the  printing  operations, 
for  it  is  only  reasonable  to  expect  that  if  it  be  impossible  with  one  negative  nitrate  bath  of  in- 
ferior strength,  with  one  kind  of  collodion  more  modified,  and  with  a  developer  of  unvarying 


192  WILSON'S    PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

ambition,  to  fascinate  you,  and  to  repay  you  for  all  the  pains  you  exer 
cise  in  order  to  produce  the  best  possible  results.  Indeed,  the  negative 
may  be  ever  so  perfect  and  good,  yet  the  printer  may  spoil  all  if  he  is  heed- 
less and  indifferent.  As  the  artist  who  makes  the  lovely  sketch  upon  the 
block  is  so  often  disappointed  by  the  murderous  hatcheting  of  the  en- 
graver, so  is  the  negative-artist  sickened  by  the  careless  handling  of  his 
work  by  him  who  should  be  equally  an  artist — the  printer.  There  should 
be  a  harmonious  working — a  mutual  understanding — between  the  two; 
thev  should  operate  and  think  together. 

247.  The  best  results  are  obtained  on  albumen  paper,  which  is  supplied 
of  various  excellent  brands,  ready  made,  by  the  dealers.  Few  under- 

proportions,  to  produce  every  variety  of  effect  in  the  negative,  so  is  it  equally  impossible, 
from  paper  always  the  same  as  to  the  proportion  of  albumen,  salt,  and  silver,  to  get  perfect 
proofs  from  all  kinds  of  negatives  as  opposite  in  their  characteristics  as  photography  can 
make  them. — VALENTINE  BLANCHARD. 

246.  I  have  used  this  bath  for  six  or  eight  months  without  having  it  once  hardly  more 
than  perceptibly  discolored,  even  after  a  hard  day's  work.     It  is  made  as  follows  : 

1.— Nitrate  of  Silver, 40  grains. 

Distilled  Water, 1  ounce. 

To  every  eighty  ounces  of  solution  add  of  a 

Saturated  Solution  of  Sal  Soda, i  ounce. 

Upon  adding  the  sal  soda,  the  bath  will  turn  creamy  in  color  ;  let  it  settle  for  a  while,  and 
then  filter  the  decanted  solution.  There  will  be  a  deposit  in  the  bottle,  which  will  take  the 
organic  matter  from  the  bath,  and  render  the  solution  always  clear.  This  deposit,  which  is 
the  carbonate  of  silver,  should  always  remain  in  the  bottle,  and  the  solution  poured  into  it 
after  use ;  then  shake  up,  and  it  is  ready  for  use  again  in  a  very  short  time.  By  the  use  of 
this  bath  the  solution  will  always  be  clear,  and  the  only  thing  required  in  its  management 
is  to  add  solution  from  a  stock  to  keep  it  up  to  some  number  of  ounces — eighty,  for  instance 
— and  every  few  days  add  a  few  drops  of  the  sal  soda  solution.  It  is  an  excellent  bath. 

2. — Nitrate  of  Silver, 35  grains. 

Nitrate  of  Ammonium,  .........     35      " 

Distilled  Water, 1  ounce. 

Filter  this  solution  through  filtering-cotton,  after  having  placed  a  piece  of  alum  about  the 
size  of  a  small  filbert  in  the  funnel,  and  then  the  solution  will  take  up  some  of  the  alum, 
which  it  surely  needs. 

This  alum,  by  the  way,  is  one  of  the  best  things  that  can  possibly  be  used  in  the  bath  out- 
side of  the  silver,  as  all  photographers  who  have  used  it  can  vouch  for.  Both  it  and  nitrate 
of  ammonium,  besides  coagulating  the  albumen  on  the  surface  of  the  paper,  also  improve  the 
tone  of  the  unfinished  print,  giving  remarkable  richness  and  beauty  to  the  whole  print,  thus 
rendering  it  an  easier  thing  to  obtain  finer  tones,  although  still  considerable  skill  is  required. 
—CHARLES  W.  HEARN. 

247.  The  negative  having  been  obtained,  the  next  step  is  to  produce  positives  from  it. 
The  fact  long  known  to  man,  that  nitrate  of  silver  in  the  presence  of  organic  matter  darkens 


PRINTING    ON    ALBUMEN    PAPER.  193 

take  to  albumenize  their  own  paper,  so  no  instructions  as  to  that  are 
called  for  here.  The  sheets  of  paper  are  taken  in  the  hands  and  floated 
carefully,  albumen  surface  down,  upon  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver 
made  as  follows  : 

Water, .         .16  ounces  (fluid). 

Nitrate  of  Silver, 2        " 

Dissolve  the  silver  in  the  water,  and  separate  one-fifth  from  the  rest. 
To  this  add  liquid  ammonia  until  the  brown  oxide  of  silver  is  redissolved, 
after  which  it  should  be  added  to  the  remaining  four-fifths.  Oxide  of 
silver  will  again  be  precipitated ;  this  should  be  redissolved  again  with 
chemically  pure  nitric  acid,  being  careful  not  to  add  too  much.  This  will 
leave  the  solution  slightly  alkaline.  It  is  not  liable  to  turn  red,  unless  it 
is  allowed  to  get  exhausted. 

in  sunlight,  is  utilized  for  this  purpose.  In  darkening,  it  is  probably  reduced  to  a  sub- 
nitrate,  but  why  it  should  be  reduced,  and  why  in  the  presence  of  organic  matter,  is  a 
question  that  will  not  be  proposed  here,  because  its  answer  would  lead  so  far  into  the  fields 
of  theoretical  chemistry  that  we  might  find  ourselves  more  in  shadow  than  before  we  entered 
those  holy  domains.  The  fact  is  certain,  that  the  nitrate  does  darken  when  exposed  to  the 
sun,  and  it  is  also  true  that  this  fact  is  utilized  in  obtaining  positive  prints.  The  paper  is 
first  albumenized,  because  it  gives  a  fine,  smooth  finish  to  it,  and  allows  it  at  least  to  work 
as  fast  as  the  plain  paper.  When  this  is  floated  upon  a  nitrate  of  silver  bath,  albumenate  of 
silver  is  formed;  but  as  there  is  also  free  nitrate  of  silver  present,  and  as  it  is  a  so  much 
simpler  salt,  and  as  the  reactions  are  similar,  we  will  consider  it  as  nitrate  of  silver  in  the 
presence  of  organic  matter — albumen.  A  piece  of  paper  is  then  taken,  with  a  coating  of 
albumen,  and  coated  with  nitrate  of  silver  and  allowed  to  dry.  If  now  this  is  used  to  print 
with,  it  would  be  found  that  the  reaction  would  be  retarded  by  the  nitric  acid  that  would  be 
set  free  (nitric  acid  being  liberated  in  this  case  in  the  same  way  that  we  have  seen  chlorine, 
bromine,  and  iodine  liberated  before).  Something  is  evidently  needed  to  seize  upon  the 
escaping  nitric  acid,  and  by  uniting  with  it  prevent  it  from  doing  any  damage.  This  "con- 
summation devoutly  to  be  wished"  is  obtained  by  the  "fuming,"  when  the  sensitized  papers 
are  hung  up  in  a  box  and  subjected  to  the  fumes  of  ammonia.  Those  fumes,  acting  upon 
the  nitrate  of  silver  on  the  paper,  form  with  it  ammonia-nitrate  of  silver.  So  then  when 
the  paper  is  placed  under  the  negative,  and  the  light  acts  upon  it,  and  in  acting  upon  it  dis- 
engages nitric  acid,  this  nitric  acid  instead  of  escaping,  instead  of  retarding  the  action  of  the 
light,  seizes  upon  the  ammonia,  forms  nitrate  of  ammonia,  and  then  as  a  retarding  agent  its 
work  is  at  an  end.  The  sensitized  paper  having  been  exposed  for  a  suflicient  time  is,  as 
every  one  knows,  taken  from  the  printing-frame  and  washed  in  water;  washed  so  as  to  re- 
move the  free  nitrate  of  silver  ;  after  being  washed  in  several  changes  of  water  it  is  transferred 
to  the  toning-bath. — H.  M.  MclNTiRE. 

The  strength  of  the  positive  bath  must  be  regulated  by  the  strength  of  the  negative.    The 
stronger  the  negative,  the  weaker  the  bath  may  be.     For  a  moderately  strong  negative,  the 
bath  maybe  between  sixty  and  sixty-five  grains  to  the  ounce.    Very  thin  and  weak  negativeg 
require  a  bath  of  seventy  to  eighty  grains. — ELBERT  ANDERSON. 
13 


1(J4  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

248.  As  the  solution  becomes  reduced  in  strength,  always  add  pure 
crystals  of  silver,  and  not  a  stronger  solution  of  ammonia,  as  some  rec- 
ommend, as  in  that  case  the  ammonia  soon  becomes  in  excess,  and  is 
liable  to  dissolve  off  the  albumen.  The  proper  plan  to  adopt  is,  as  the 
solution  is  reduced  in  strength,  to  add  pure  nitrate  of  silver,  and,  when 
it  is  reduced  in  bulk,  to  make  a  fresh  supply  according  to  the  formula, 
and  mix  them  together ;  this  will  keep  your  solution  at  a  certain  standard 
all  the  time.  The  paper  should  be  floated  on  this  solution  from  one  to 
three  minutes,  according  to  the  density  of  the  negatives  in  use.  Take 
just  as  much  care  of  this  solution,  too,  as  you  Avould  of  your  negative-bath 
solution.  When  not  in  use,  keep  it  covered  up  from  the  air  and  dust,  or 

Now  paper  requiring  a  bath  of  one  hundred  grains  should  contain,  for  each  unit  of  surface, 
two  and  a  half  times  as  much  of  the  soluble  chloride  as  that  requiring  a  forty-grain  bath. 
It  follows,  then,  that  each  sheet  silvered  on  a  one  hundred-grain  bath  should  convert  two 
and  a  half  times  as  much  silver  as  the  forty-grain  bath,  while  the  free  nitrate  of  silver 
withdrawn  from  the  bath  by  the  paper  will  contain  the  same  proportionate  excess.  It  will 
not  be  much  out  of  the  way  to  say  that  an  ounce  of  silver  made  into  a  forty-grain  bath  will 
silver  two  and  a  half  times  as  many  sheets  as  the  same  quantity  of  silver  in  a  one  hundred- 
grain  solution.  This  is  on  the  supposition  that  the  strength  of  the  salting  varies  in  the  same 
proportion  as  the  silver.  The  one  hundred-grain  bath  will  give  more  free  nitrate  to  be 
washed  from  the  prints,  and  more  unreduced  chloride  to  be  removed  by  the  fixing-bath. 

It  is  a  matter  of  no  small  importance,  on  the  score  of  economy,  whether  a  strong  or  weak 
solution  is  used,  provided,  as  is  claimed,  the  weaker  solution  is  not  used  at  the  expense  of 
some  quality  of  excellence  in  the  resulting  picture.  But,  as  above  intimated,  much  depends 
upon  the  preparation  of  the  paper,  for  the  salting  may  be  such  that  a  forty-grain  bath  would 
dissolve  part  of  tl.e  albumen,  sufficient  to  impair  the  brilliancy  of  the  print.  Suppose  a 
paper  salted  with  a  chloride  whose  base  gives  a  very  deliquescent  nitrate  which  has  not  the 
property  of  coagulating  albumen.  It  is  probable  that,  on  floating  this  paper  on  a  forty- 
grain  bath,  so  much  silver  would  be  converted  into  the  chloride  from  the  solution  in 
immediate  contact  with  the  surface  of  the  albumen,  that  the  impoverished  solution,  aided,  it 
may  be,  by  the  new  nitrate,  would  dissolve  a  portion  of  the  albumen.  In  such  case  the 
silver  bath  must  be  strengthened,  and  I  remember  to  have  used  paper  that  for  the  best 
results  required  a  bath  one  hundred  and  twenty  grains  strong. — W.  H.  SHERMAN. 

248.  When  a  new  bath  is  made,  add  about  half  an  ounce  of  ammonia  to  the  gallon.  The 
precipitate  of  oxide  of  silver  is  left  on  the  film,  and  will  dissolve  when  the  bath  is  filtered 
again  after  it  has  been  used  for  ten  or  twelve  sheets.  If  at  any  time  discoloration  should 
appear  again,  look  to  the  strength  of  your  solution,  and  use  a  few  drops  of  ammonia.  The 
ammonia  added  to  the  printing-bath  produces,  to  a  more  or  less  degree,  the  effect  of  fuming, 
according  to  the  quantity  which  is  used.  How  or  why  the  addition  of  ammonia  prevents  dis- 
coloration, I  am  unable  to  tell.  Per  contra,  if  the  bath  be  very  strong,  the  solution  will  repel 
from  the  surface,  which  will  look  greasy,  the  liquid  collecting  in  drops. — CHARLES  WALDACK. 

Take  nitrate  of  silver,  fuse  it,  dissolve  it  in  the  necessary  quantity  of  water,  put  it  in  the 
sun  for  a  few  days,  and  filter  it.  When  tested,  now,  with  litmus-paper  it  will  turn  red  paper 


PRINTING    ON    ALBUMEN    PAPER.  195 

else  nightly  pour  it  into  a  bottle  where  no  contaminating  influences  can 
reach  it.  It  will  treat  YOU  well  if  you  are  good  to  it,  and  reward  you 
with  splendid  results. 

249.  A  few  words  as  to  the  manner  of  sensitizing  or  floating  the  pa- 
per. First,  turn  up  the  corners  of  the  sheet,  albumenized  side  down,  so 
it  may  he  readily  handled  by  them.  !Now  seize  the  sheet  by  the  two  di- 
agonal corners,  and  allow  it  to  fall  or  curve,  the  right  end  being  lifted  the 

blue.  Now  add  C.  P.  nitric  acid,  enough  to  turn  a  piece  of  blue  litmus-paper  red,  say 
within  ten  or  fifteen  seconds.  Let  it  stand  for  a  day  or  two,  and  throw  into  it  precipitated 
chalk  (ten  cents'  worth  will  go  a  long  ways;  an  excess  will  do  no  harm).  After  a  day  or 
two,  during  which  time  it  must  be  well  shaken  up  once  in  a  while,  filter  it  carefully,  and  you 
will  find  that  this  silver  solution  will  not  turn  blue  paper  red,  and  yet  work  rapid  and 
without  fog.  I  forgot  to  state  that  it  has  to  be  saturated  with  iodide  of  silver,  as  usual. 
Chalk  is  also  good  to  use  in  discoloring  silver  solution  for  silvering  paper.  I  always  keep 
some  in  my  funnel,  through  which  I  let  the  solution  run  after  being  used. — R.  BENECKE. 

Let  me  say  that  you  may,  on  the  utilization  of  old  negative  baths  for  printing,  take  anv 
old  negative  bath,  no  matter  if  it  fogs  or  has  been  overworked.  If  acid,  neutralize  either 
with  carbonate  of  soda  or  liquor  ammonia,  a  slight  excess  of  alkali  does  not  matter,  and  set 
in  the  sun  for  an  hour  or  so  ;  if  there  is  no  sun,  keep  it  in  the  light  as  long  as  you  can.  The 
object  of  this  is  to  precipitate  all  organic  and  other  impurities,  while  retaining  the  alcohol 
in  the  solution.  When  sufficiently  sunned,  add  one  drachm  of  a  solution  of  citric  acid 
(sixteen  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water)  to  every  eight  ounces  of  bath  solution.  The  object 
of  this  is  to  precipitate  the  iodide  of  silver  in  the  bath.  Filter,  and  add  fresh  silver  until 
the  solution  contains  thirty-five  grains  to  the  ounce.  Now.  to  every  half  gallon  add  half  an 
ounce  of  muriatic  acid ;  shake  well,  then  add  enough  liquor  ammonia  to  make  it  slightly 
alkaline;  again  shake  well,  filter,  and  save  the  filtering-paper  for  subsequent  use  as  long  as 
you  can.  Every  time  you  strengthen,  add  a  little  acid  and  ammonia.  Float  the  paper  from 
thirty  to  forty  seconds  ;  no  more.  Fume  as  usual. — J.  L.  GIHON. 

249.  For  silvering  the  paper,  provide  a  table,  somewhat  larger  than  the  sheet  of  paper, 
covered  with  velveteen.  Upon  this  the  paper  is  laid,  and  the  albumen  surface  is  briskly 
rubbed  with  a  bunch  of  cotton  or,  better,  with  a  soft  pad  covered  with  silk.  The  pile  of  the 
velvet  upon  which  the  paper  is  laid  serves  to  hold  it  from  slipping.  The  rubbing  prevents 
the  silver  solution  from  drying  in  drops  or  tears,  which  frequently  occasion  great  annoy- 
ance. I  imagined  the  effect  produced  by  the  rubbing  might  be  due  to  electricity,  and  this 
idea  suggested  silk  as  a  substitute  for  the  cotton.  I  prefer  the  silk,  but  the  electrical  question 
remains  undetermined.  The  paper  is  then  rolled  up  in  the  form  of  a  scroll,  which  is  held 
in  the  left  hand  and  placed  upon  the  solution  (previously  poured  into  a  pan  of  suitable  size), 
while  the  free  end  is  drawn  over  the  surface  by  the  right  hand,  the  unrolling  being  regu- 
lated by  the  left.  This  manipulation  being  skilfully  performed,  the  possibility  of  the 
formation  of  bubbles  on  the  paper  is  precluded.  In  warm  weather,  the  paper  is  left  in  the 
solution  about  one  minute  ;  in  cool  weather,  two  or  three  minutes.  The  paper  is  then  lifted 
slowly  from  the  bath,  so  that  but  little  of  the  solution  is  drawn  up  by  cohesion.  Lastly,  it 
is  reversed  and  hung  up  to  dry  by  the  end  which  was  last  to  leave  the  bath.  Hardly  a  drop 
will  leave  the  paper  after  it  is  suspended. — W.  H.  SHERMAN. 


196  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

highest.  ]N"ow  drop  the  left  end  of  the  sheet  upon  the  surface  of  the  so« 
lution,  and  by  one  of  the  corners  carry  or  float  it  to  the  left  end  of  the 
vessel,  following  with  the  other  hand,  gradually  dropping  the  sheet,  and 
with  the  fingers  tapping  gently  upon  the  back  of  it  until  the  whole 
lies  upon  the  solution.  Avoid  bubbles.  Do  not  allow  the  edges  to 
become  immersed,  and  if  they  turn  up,  breathe  upon  the  sheet,  and  that 
trouble  will  end. 

The  following  is  a  neat  and  economical  method  of  treating  the  silvered  sheet  when 
taking  it  from  the  solution  on  which  it  has  been  sensitized.  Have  ready  as  many  sheets  of 
thick  blotting-paper  as  there  are  sheets  of  paper  to  sensitize.  In  lifting  the  albumenized 
paper  off  the  silver  solution,  draw  it  uniformly  over  the  edge  of  the  dish,  so  as  to  remove 
as  much  as  possible  of  the  solution  adhering  to  the  surface.  Lay  the  sheet  on  the  blotting- 
paper,  and  place  another  sheet  of  blotting-paper  over  it  to  still  further  absorb  the  superficial 
solution.  Lay  the  next  sensitized  albumenized  sheet  on  this  blotting-paper,  and  so  on,  al- 
ternating blotting-paper  and  sensitized  albumenized  paper.  The  thick  blotting-paper  quickly 
takes  up  the  nitrate  of  silver  solution,  leaving  the  sensitized  sheet  with  no  free  moisture.  In 
this  condition  it  quickly  dries  without  the  silver  solution  gathering  in  pools  or  drops.  The 
sheets  of  blotting-paper  can  be  used  many  times  before  they  become  saturated.  They  may 
then  be  burnt  for  the  silver  they  contain.  To  those  who  have  not  tried  this  method,  two 
objections  appear  obvious — that  the  prints  from  such  sensitized  paper  would  be  weak  by 
having  so  much  free  solution  removed  from  the  surface,  and  that  the  sheets  would  be  dirty. 
In  practice,  however,  the  paper  so  treated  is  found  to  give  quite  as  vigorous,  and  much  more 
uniform,  results  as  from  paper  that  is  lifted  direct  from  the  dish  and  hung  up  to  dry  spon- 
taneously. If  care  be  taken  with  the  blotting-sheets,  no  marks  whatever  will  be  produced 
by  the  damp  contact  of  the  two  papers.  There  are  many  advantages  attached  to  this  mode  of 
working — superior  cleanliness,  by  the  absence  of  the  stains  of  drops  of  silver  solution  ;  less 
time  required  in  drying  off  the  sensitized  sheets  ;  the  economy  of  the  silver,  for  the  expense 
of  the  blotting-paper  is  as  nothing  compared  with  the  perfect  method  of  saving  the  whole 
of  the  silver  solution  adhering  to  the  sensitized  sheets.  I  am  not  aware  of  a,ny  drawbacks 
to  this  method.  I  have  had  it  in  use  for  several  years. — JABEZ  HUGHES. 

"When  floating  paper,  I,  as  a  rule,  bring  one  end  of  the  paper  in  contact  with  the  silver 
solution  first.  Now,  after  carefully  removing  all  air-bubbles,  and  allowing  the  paper  to  float 
as  long  as  I  deem  necessary,  I  first  lift  the  end  of  the  sheet  from  it  that  was  the  first  to  come 
in  contact  with  it.  This  gives  a  uniform  coating,  and  assures  me  that  some  parts  of  the 
paper  will  not  be  more  brilliant  than  others,  and  that  the  prints  next  day  will  be  uniform  in 
strength  and  brilliancy.  If  one  is  good, -all  will  be  good,  and  vice  versa,  provided  always 
that  care  was  used  in  the  printing.  Do  not  rush  the  paper  off  of  the  solution,  but  raise 
slowly  and  evenly,  which  allows  the  silver  to  run  off  the  paper  while  raising  it,  so  that  when 
it  is  completely  off,  there  will  be  only  a  dropping  from  it.  Now  hang  the  sheet  with  one 
corner  lower  than  the  other,  under  which  place  the  silver  bottle,  in  the  neck  of  which  is  the 
funnel  with  filter.  While  preparing  another  sheet  of  paper,  this  will  have  dripped  as  much 
as  it  can,  and  is  now  ready  to  be  moved  to  another  p}ace  to  dry,  leaving  room  for  the  next 
sheet.  In  this  way  very  little  silver  is  lost  or  wasted ;  and  not  only  is  this  the  result,  but  the 
paper  is  in  better  condition — from  the  fact  of  its  having  been  through  a  certain  routine^- 


PRINTING    ON    ALBUMEN    PAPER.  197 

250.  To  remove  the  sheet  from  the  solution  requires  some  care.  Seize 
it  by  the  left  corner  nearest  you,  and  slowly  raise  it  until  the  opposite 
left  corner  is  free  from  the  solution,  when  the  last  should  be  taken  in  the 

FIG.  60. 


right  fingers,  and  then  the  whole  sheet  is  gently  lifted  from  the  dish,  al- 
lowed to  drain,  drawn  over  a  glass  rod  at  the  end  of  the  dish,  and  then 
hung  up  to  dry.  By  this  means  the  superfluous  silver  solution  is  saved 
for  future  use,  instead  of  being  allowed  to  drip  on  the  floor  and  waste, 
and  the  uniform  silvering  or  sensitizing  of  the  sheet  is  more  certainly 
effected.  The  movement  over  the  rod  should  be  slow  and  even,  with 
rather  a  dragging  or  pressing  against  it  outwardly,  rather  than  a  motion 
more  vertical.  Some  do  not  use  this  glass  rod,  believing  that  it  abrades 
the  surface  of  the  paper.  This  can  hardly  be  true,  however;  neither  can 
it  deprive  the  sheet  of  any  needed  silver.  If  it  is  used,  care  should  be 
taken  that  no  marks  are  caused  by  hesitating,  in  the  least,  while  the  sheet 
is  being  drawn  out  and  over  the  rod.  The  time  of  floating  varies  with 

which  results  in  making  it  more  general  in  results.  The  surface  of  albumenized  paper 
should  never  come  in  contact  with  any  hard  substance  while  damp,  as  it  is  certain  to 
interrupt  the  evenness  of  the  surface,  and  present  in  the  print  an  unevenness  that  attracts 
attention. — I.  B.  WEBSTER. 

250.  Keep  the  paper  in  a  damp,  cool  place,  from  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  before  sil- 
vering. This  applies  to  every  brand  of  albumen  paper.  It  gives  greater  ease  in  silvering. 
The  paper  will  take  the  silver  better,  and  will  also  lessen  the  tendency  to  blisters  to  which 
the  "Brilliant"  papers  are  especially  liable.  Carefully  examine  the  first  sheet  you  silver 
each  day,  as  it  begins  to  get  surface  dry.  If  it  looks  as  though  the  surface  was  greasy,  re- 
duce the  strength  of  your  silver  solution.  Dry  as  quickly  as  possible.  Fume  with  ammo- 
nia until  the  paper  prints  a  rich  purple.  Ten  minutes  will  probably  be  sufficient.  Be  sure 
that,  when  the  paper  is  once  dry  after  silvering,  it  does  not  get  damp  again  until  it  goes  into 
the  washing.  In  damp  weather  see  that  the  fuming-box  is  dry.  If  damp,  light  a  lamp, 
and  leave  it  burning  in  the  box  for  a  quarter  or  half  an  hour  before  putting  in  the 
paper. — H.  C.  BRIDLE. 


198 


WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 


the  season  of  the  year  and  the  salting  of  the  paper.     From  twenty  sec- 
onds upward  is  right. 

251.  After  the  sheets  are  thus  silvered  or  sensitized,  they  are  hung  in 
a  closet  or  drying-box,  by  means  of  clothes-clips  at  the  corners,  to  be 
FIG.  6i.  thoroughly  dried.     After  this  they  are  fastened  to 

skeleton  frames  made  of  wood  the  size  of  the  sheets, 
with  a  spring  at  each  corner,  and  placed  in  a  fuming- 
box  to  be  fumed. 

252.  The  operation  of  fuming  is  for  the  purpose 
of  increasing  the  sensitiveness  of  the  paper,  and  also 
the  intensity  of  the  prints.  It  continued  accord- 
ing to  the  density  of  the  negative,  varying  with  cir- 
cumstances. It  is  a  good  plan  to  hang  the  sheet 
with  the  end  upward  which  leaves  the  solution  last. 
Thus  a  more  even  silvering  is  secured.  If  the  sur- 
face of  the  paper  is  horny  and  hard,  "  tear  drops  " 
will  occur.  Some  prefer  the  use  of  blotting-pads  for  drying  the  paper. 
If  they  are  used,  see  to  it  that  they  are  chemically  pure. 


FIG.  62. 


251.  This  is  my  drying-room.      A  is  the  gas-stove  by  which  the  room  is  heated;  B  is  the 

paper  as  fastened  to  the  clips  for  drying ;  c  is  a 
shelf  on  which  the  silver  bath-bottles,  as  well  as 
the  collodio-chloride  bottles,  are  placed ;  D,  D,  D 
are  plates,  each  hung  upon  two  nails. — C.  W. 
HEAKN,  in  the  Practical,  Printer. 

252.  I  will  venture  to  describe  my  fuming-box 
— a  little  piece  of  apparatus  which  I  devised  sev- 
eral years  ago,  and  is  so  much  of  a  convenience, 
it  seems  to  me  that  others  might  also  find  it  useful. 
It  consists  of  a  tight  box  made  of  match  stuif  and 
well  put  together*,  and  a  drawer.  The  box  is  fast- 
ened up  against  the  wall  in  the  printing-room,  in 
an  inverted  position,  so  that  the  drawer  is  opened 
by  sliding  downwards,  and,  of  course,  shut  by 
sliding  up.  The  drawer  is  the  principal  thing  in 
the  contrivance.  It  is  wide  enough  to  accommo- 
date a  sheet  of  paper,  and  is  some  six  or  eight 
inches  longer  than  the  sheet — say  thirty  inches 
long  by  twenty  inches  wide  and  five  inches  deep. 
The  top  end  of  the  drawer  is  omitted,  instead  of  which  two  pieces  of  twine  are  stretched 
across,  from  which,  by  means  of  clips,  the  paper  is  suspended.  The  sides  of  the  box  extend 
iown  two  feet  below,  and  serve  as  guides  for  the  drawer  when  let  down  to  put  in  or  take  out 


FEINTING    ON    ALBUMEN    PAPER. 


199 


Take  any  common  wooden  box,  large 


FIG.  63. 


253.  If  the  paper  is  not  printed  as  rapidly  as  it  is  fumed,  it  may  be  cut 
into  proper  sizes  and  kept  for  use  in  a  handy  drawer  reserved  for  that 
purpose  only.  It  will  change  color  if  exposed  to  the  light,  and  as  a  usual 
thing  it  will  not  keep  in  good  condition  from  day  to  day.  The  negative 
is  placed  in  a  printing-frame  of  suitable  size,  the  film  inside.  The  albu- 

the  paper.  A  stop  is  fastened  to  the  wall,  upon  which  the  drawer  rests  when  so  let  down  or 
opened.  A  spring  made  of  common  strap-iron  is  let  into  the  left  guide-piece,  in  such  a 
position  that  when  the  drawer  is  closed  it  is  held  by  the  spring  in  its  place;  a  slight  pressure 
with  the  thumb  of  the  left  hand  allows  the  drawer  to  open.  A  bottle  of  ammonia  is  placed 
on  the  lower  end  of  the  drawer,  where  it  is  always  at  hand  for  use  as  occasion  requires;  and 
a  small  glass  tumbler,  from  which  the  fumes  are  given  off,  completes  the  arrangement.  By 
this  device  the  fumes  of  ammonia,  which  are  lighter  than  air,  are  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
fuming-box  when  the  paper  is  removed ;  and  in  all  respects  the  machine  is  as  convenient 
as  possible. — W.  H.  SHERMAN. 

The  construction  of  the  fuming-box  is  very  simple, 
enough  for  the  purpose,  and  make  a  door  of  suitable 
size  for  it,  which,  when  shut,  will  totally  exclude 
all  light.  Make  a  false  bottom  in  this  about  six 
inches  from  the  real  one,  and  perforate  it  with  holes 
of  about  the  size  an  extra  large  gimlet  would  make. 
These  holes  should  be  exceedingly  numerous,  and  at 
the  centre  of  the  board  there  should  be,  if  anything, 
a  smaller  number  of  them,  because  the  saucer  con- 
taining the  liquid  ammonia  is  generally  placed  at 
the  centre  of  the  real  bottom  of  the  box. 

The  sheets  could  be  suspended  in  this  box  by  having 
a  nipper  nailed  at  each  end  of  a  stick  of  sufficient 
length,  which  is  fastened  at  the  top  of  the  box,  par- 
allel to  the  bottom  of  the  box.  Several  of  these 
strips  could  be  placed  at  about  three  inches  apart, 
and  thus  quite  a  number  of  sheets  could  be  fumed 
at  once.  Sometimes,  daring  damp  weather,  the 
fuming  of  the  paper  is  attended  with  unsatisfactory 
results,  on  account  of  the  great  moisture  of  the 
paper,  which  tends  toward  turning  it  yellow;  but 
this  is  generally  overcome  by  pouring  a  little  chlo- 
ride of  lime  on  the  bottom  of  the  box.  The  time 
of  fuming  the  paper  depends  upon  the  state  of  the 

nitrate  bath,  the  quality  of  the  negatives,  the  temperature  of  the  weather,  and  the  bright- 
ness of  the  light.  Paper  silvered  on  an  acid  bath  needs  much  longer  fuming  than  when 
silvered  on  an  alkaline  or  neutral  one  ;  paper  for  intense  negatives  requires  less  fuming  than 
for  weak  ones  ;  during  the  summer,  less  fuming  than  during  the  winter  ;  and  on  a  dark  day, 
less  of  fuming  than  on  a  bright  day. — C.  W.  HEARN,  in  the  Practical  Printer. 

253.    To  silver  paper  that  will  keep,  make  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  thirty  to  forty 
grains  strong ;   add  to  this  two  grains  of  citric  acid  to  each  ounce.     After  the  citric  acid  is 


200  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

men  surface  of  the  paper  is  now  laid  upon  the  film,  the  shutter  made  fast 
by  the  springs,  so  as  to  bring  paper  arid  negative  in  close  contact  uni- 
formly all  over,  and  the  exposure  made  to  the  light,  so  as  to  allow  the 
rays  to  fall  horizontally  upon  it. 

254.  The  exposure  of  the  paper  to  the  light  is  governed  by  the  various 
conditions  of  the  light,  the  temperature,  the  nature  of  the  negative,  and 
by  the  paper  used.  To  secure  a  good  print,  the  paper  should  be  floated 
long  enough  to  produce  a  clear  and  even  picture,  without  any  mottled 
appearance  in  the  background;  it  should  also  be  a  little  bronzed  in  the 
deep  shadows,  and  it  should  be  fumed  long  enough,  that,  when  printed, 
it  will  assume  a  rich  purple  tone.  In  many  cases,  half  a  minute  will  be 
found  sufficient  to  float  the  paper  upon  the  silver,  and  in  some  cases, 
where  the  negative  is  very  dense,  the  print  will  be  improved  by  omitting 
the  fuming  altogether.  The  exposure  ended,  the  prints  must  now  be 
gathered  together  for  the  after  manipulations. 

dissolved,  add  ammonia  as  long  as  a  precipitate  of  citrate  of  silver  is  formed  ;  then  redissolve 
the  precipitate  by  the  addition  of  nitric  acid.  Care  must  be  taken  in  adding  the  nitric  acid 
to  add  just  enough  to  quite  redissolve  the  precipitate,  leaving  a  very  slight  excess  of  nitric 
acid.  Float  the  paper  in  the  usual  manner  ;  and,  after  drying,  store  away  between  sheets  of 
blotting-paper. — H.  T.  ANTHONY. 

To  preserve  sensitized  paper,  dip  sheets  of  blotting-paper  in  a  saturated  solution  of  bicar- 
bonate of  soda;  hang  up  and  dry.  "When  your  day's  work  of  printing  is  over,  lay  your 
surplus  sensitized  paper  between  these  sheets,  in  a  large  book;  the  paper  will  keep  as  pure  in 
color  as  when  first  silvered,  and  will  not  turn  if  left  so  for  a  week.  This  simple  method 
may  prove  a  great  economizer,  especially  when  after  silvering  a  good  lot  of  paper  the  day 
suddenly  grows  dark,  and  the  light  slow  and  almost  devoid  of  printing  power. — J.  L.  GIHON. 

We  silver  and  fume  our  paper  the  night  before  it  is  to  be  used,  and  for  several  reasons  ; 
in  warm  weather  the  evening  air  is  cooler  and  favors  the  keeping  of  the  paper,  and  I  find  it 
much  more  comfortable  working  with  plenty  of  fresh  air  than  being  boxed  up  with  a  gas  or 
kerosene  light.  Then,  again,  you  are  very  certain  no  white  light  reaches  the  paper  until  it 
comes  through  the  negative,  and  I  am  fully  convinced  that  daylight,  small  it  may  be  in 
quantity,  is  one  great  cause  of  yellow  paper ;  and  I,  too,  find  that  paper  prints  much  nicer 
several  hours  after  fuming  than  just  after.  Second,  instead  of  putting  prints  into  acid 
water  direct,  put  them  into  a  bath  of  plain  water  first.  They  will  redden  much  more  evenly 
and  are  easier  to  handle. — JULIUS  HALL. 

In  a  few  words,  let  me  recall  some  of  the  points  to  be  remembered  in  order  to  obtain 
success  in  printing.  Keep  the  paper  damp  before  silvering,  so  that  it  may  take  the  silver 
uniformly  and  quickly,  and  also  as  a  guard  against  one  source  of  blisters.  Always  keep  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  solution,  and  never  think  of  starting  to  silver  without  being  certain  of 
the  condition  of  your  bath  both  as  to  strength  and  alkalinity.  If  you  would  have  your  paper 
print  rich,  do  not  allow  it  to  become  too  dry  before  printing.  If  you  would  have  your  prints 
resist  the  atmospheric  influences  as  much  as  possible,  do  not  be  afraid  to  tone  them  well.  If 
these  requirements  are  carefully  attended  to,  success  will  follow. — H.  A.  WEBB. 


PRINTING    ON    ALBUMEN    PAPEK.  201 

255.  A  bath  of  tepid  water  is  prepared  in.  a  dish  or  tank,  into  which 
the  prints  are  quickly  or  entirely  immersed,  one  after  the  other,  and  al- 
lowed to  remain  from  three  to  five  minutes,  at  the  end  of  which  the  watei 
is  changed,  and  the  operation  repeated.     The  first  two  waters  remove 
considerable  free  nitrate  of  silver,  and  should  be  saved  in  a  cask,  the  sil- 
ver precipitated  by  means  of  salt.     Two  or  three  more  changes  of  water 
are  now  necessary  before  the  prints  are  ready  for  the  following  treat- 
ment. 

256.  Another  bath  of  tepid  water  is  now  provided,  to  each  gallon  of 
which  about  one  ounce  of  acetic  acid  has  been  added,  stirring  thoroughly 
so  as  to  secure  the  complete  acidifying  of  the  water  throughout  the  ves- 
sel.    !N"ow  completely  immerse  the  prints  one  by  one,  and  allow  them  to 
remain,  say,  ten  minutes,  keeping  them  continually  in  motion.     The  ob- 
ject of  this  operation  is  to  render  the  next  one — toning — easier  by  chang- 
ing the  color  of  the  prints,  so  the  effect  of  the  toning  can  be  more  readily 
observed,  and  the  toning  itself  is  thus  accelerated  to  a  considerable  de- 
gree.    The  acid-water  being  next  poured  off,  the  prints  are  again  washed 

255.  When  the  print  comes  from  the  printing-frame,  it  contains  several  substances  which 
must  be  removed.     There  are  the  violet  subchloride,  Ag2Cl,  the  red  or  yellowish-red  suboxide, 
Ag2O,  and  the  free  nitrate,  AgNO3.     The  free  nitrate  being  soluble,  is  removed  by  washing; 
after  which  the  subchloride  and  unreduced  chloride  must  be  removed  from  the  print,  as  they 
are  capable  of  further  reduction  by  the  light.     Who  has  not  wished  that  the  print  might  be 
taken  from  the  frame  j  ust  at  the  right  moment,  and  so  preserved  ?     But  that  which  constitutes 
its  beauty  of  color  at  that  point  is  the  violet  subchloride  on  a  substratum  of  the  red  suboxide. 
If  it  is  now  placed  in  the  fixing-bath,  the  subchloride  is  dissolved,  and  the  suboxide  left. 
But  the  color  in  this  condition  is  not  satisfactory.     So  a  substance  was  sought  for  to  supple- 
ment this  suboxide,  and  compensate  for  the  loss  of  the  subchloride.     The  search  was  sue' 
cessful  and  the  result  admirable. — W.  H.  SHERMAN. 

Silver  prints  must  be  thoroughly  washed  from  the  free  nitrate  of  silver  before  toning.  If 
this  injunction  is  obeyed  in  each  and  every  case,  the  prints  after  being  finished  will  keep 
pure  and  white,  and  not  turn  the  least  yellow  with  age.  In  alum  eliminating  the  above 
must  be  adhered  to.  Prints  in  my  possession  of  my  own  and  others,  made  in  1873,  are  as 
good  to-day  as  the  day  they  came  from  the  alum  solution,  eight  years  ago. — JOHN  K.  CLEMONS. 

256.  In  acidifying  the  prints,  a  little  warm  water  facilitates  the  reddening  of  them  very 
wonderfully.     The  plan  I  have  adopted  for  keeping  the  toning-bath  warm  is  similar  to  that 
for  the  silver  bath ;  the  same  pan  will  answer  for  both.     Unless  there  is  a  very  large  number 
of  prints,  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  fill  the  pan  with  warm  water;  but  if  necessary,  the 
gas-  or  coal-oil  stove  can  be  used  for  this  also.     In  this  case,  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent 
the  bath  from  becoming  too  warm,  as  the  action  will  not  only  be  uneven,  but  also  flat  and 
gray,  with  a  tendency  to  measles.     The  fixing-bath  may  be  made  up  of  warm  water,  and  all 
Lhe  operations  are  through,  with  far  more  satisfactory  results;  and,  as  regards  comfort,  I  will 
leave  it  for  those  who  have  tried  this  and  the  ice-cold  solution  to  judge. — H.  A.  WEBB. 


202  WILSON'S    PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

ill  several  changes  of  water,  until  the  odor  of  the  acid  is  entirely  removed, 
when  they  are  ready  for  toning. 

257.  Now  sufficient  scope  is  given  for  the  exercise  of  judgment  and 
taste.     Do  not  hurry.     More  prints  are  spoiled  by  making  the  gold  solu- 
tion strong  in  order  to  tone  rapidly,  than  in  any  other  way.     This  caution 
should  be  observed,  and  the  prints  turned  over  and  over,  so  each  one 
may  be  carefully  watched,  and  withdrawn  from  the  solution  as  soon  as  it 
arrives  at  the  proper  color  or  tone.     The  prints  are  not  acted  upon  just 
alike,  some  becoming  toned  much  sooner  than  others,  hence  the  necessity 
of  "  going  slow." 

258.  Operators  differ  in  their  tastes  as  to  the  most  desirable  tone  to  se- 
cure     One  prefers  a  warm  or  chocolate  tone,  while  the  rich,  black,  vel- 

257.  A  solution  of  chloride  of  gold.     What  can  this  do?     Gold  is  what  might  be  called  an 
ascetic  metal ;  it  likes  to  live  alone.     In  other  words,  it  is  easily  reduced  from  its  salts  to  the 
metallic  state.     So  when  this  sheet  of  paper,  covered  all  over  with  silver  salts,  is  brought  into 
a  solution  of  chloride  of  gold,  the  silver,  having  a  great  attraction  naturally  for  chlorine, 
and  the  gold  parting  willingly  with  its  chlorine,  it  is  no  more  than  can  be  expected  to  find 
the  chlorine  leaving  the  gold  and  uniting  with  the  silver,  forming,  of  course,  chloride  of 
silver;    the  dark  subchloride,  when  the  silver  has  been  reduced  to  the  subchloride  by  the 
action  of  the  light,  and  the  white  chloride  when  the  silver  is  unaltered,  and  then  the  gold, 
having  lost  that  which  held  it  in  solution,  has  nothing  to  do  but  come  down  as  a  precipitate 
of  metallic  gold,  and  so  metallic  gold  is  deposited  upon  the  picture. — H.  M.  MC!NTIRE. 

Placing  the  whole  number  of  prints,  to  be  toned  by  a  given  quantity  of  gold,  in  the 
solution  at  once  insures  more  complete  utilization  and  equalization  of  the  toning  agent 
through  the  entire  number  of  prints.  The  large  surface  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  toning- 
bath  at  once  prevents  rapid  reduction,  and  there  being  in  the  bath  nothing  but  the  prints  to  pre- 
cipitate the  gold,  the  toning  takes  place  with  deliberation  and  uniformity. — W.  H.  SHERMAN. 

The  toning  should  be  done  in  a  quite  weak  and  even  light,  and  at  a  little  distance  from  the 
window.  An  idea  of  the  quantity  of  light  required  may  be  had  by  bearing  in  mind  that 
all  you  wish  is  to  see  distinctly  and  clearly,  without  any  guessing.  Take  a  couple  of  dozen 
prints,  and  let  them  lay  in  your  bath  solution,  face  up,  but  under  the  surface,  and  keep  them 
in  motion  while  in  it ;  the  action  is  as  follows :  At  first  the  prints  will  not  perceptibly  change, 
but  very  gradually  the  high-lights  and  half-tints  of  the  face  will  lose  their  red  tint,  and 
will  commence  to  border  on  the  rich  purple,  and  then  they  will  quite  quickly  arrive  at  that 
stage  when  they  are  to  be  removed  to  a  bath  of  running  water. — CHARLES  W.  HEARN. 

258.  After  washing  away  the  nitrate  of  silver  from  the  print  (for  the  reason  that  the  nitrate 
would  only  cause  a  useless  waste  of  gold),  we  place  the  print  in  the  toning-bath.     Now  the 
chloride  of  silver  cannot  be  toned  by  gold  1     Why  ?     Because  the  chloride  of  silver  will  not 
take  any  of  the  chlorine  away  from  the  chloride  of  gold.     But  the  subchloride  will  take  a 
little;  enough  to  change  it  from  the  subchloride,  Ag2Cl,  to  the  chloride  AgCl,  that  is,  one 
atom  of  chlorine  for  every  atom  or  molecule  of  the  subchloride.    This  accounts  for  the  bleach- 
ing which  usually  takes  place — the  violet  subchloride  being  changed  to  the  chloride,  which 
vs  white.     But,  if  the  bath  be  acid  with  hydrochloric  acid,  the  subchloride  is  quickly  changed. 


FEINTING    ON    ALBUMEN    PAPER.  203 

vety  tone  of  an  engraving  is  liked  best  by  others.  For  the  last,  use  this 
toning  bath : 

Water, 32  ounces. 

Acetate  of  Soda, 60  grains. 

Table  Salt, 60       " 

Chloride  of  Gold, 4       " 

Nitrate  of  Uranium,  .         .         .         .         .         .         .  4       " 

The  gold  and  uranium,  both  having  an  acid  reaction,  must  be  neutral- 
ized with  bicarbonate  of  soda  separately  before  being  added  to  the  bath. 
Dissolve  the  salt  and  acetate  of  soda  in  the  water;  then  dissolve  the 
nitrate  of  uranium  in  one  ounce  of  water  and  add  bicarbonate  of  soda, 
until  neutral.  Add  this  to  the  first  solution  and  then  neutral  gold  solu- 
tion sufficient  to  tone  in  about  fifteen  minutes.  Where  a  warm,  brown 
tone  is  desired,  the  uranium  may  be  omitted.  This  bath  should  be  made 
several  hours  before  use.  But  a  few  prints  should  be  toned  at  a  time, 
and  they  should  be  kept  agitated  while  in  the  solution,  for,  if  they  rise  to 
the  top  and  remain  there  for  a  minute  or  two,  a  red  patch  will  be  the  re- 
sult, and  the  picture  spoiled.  Air-bubbles  between  the  prints  will  also 
cause  red  spots.  To  prevent  these,  lay  your  prints  in  one  at  a  time. 

259.  It  is  believed  that  the  toning-bath  most  in  use,  and  the  one  with 
which  all  varieties  of  tones  may  be  secured,  is  the  one  first  given  in  sec- 
tion 258.  But  this  is  not  the  only  way,  a  choice  being  given  by  some  to 

and  then  some  of  the  suboxide  gives  way,  and  is  converted  into  the  chloride  again.  Hence 
the  more  hydrochloric  acid  the  more  bleaching.  But  the  toning  takes  place  upon  suboxide 
of  silver,  which  is  being  converted  into  the  chloride  by  the  chlorine  of  the  chloride  of  gold, 
and  the  gold  takes  the  place  of  the  silver  thus  removed. — W.  H.  SHERMAN. 

Toning-bath  for  purple  or  black  tone  :  Water,  one  quart ;  gold,  three  grains ;  sal  soda, 
saturated  solution,  a  few  drops.  Print  deep  and  tone  to  the  color  you  wish.  For  a  brown 
tone,  take  one  quart  of  water,  one  or  more  grains  of  gold,  and  one  drachm  of  acetate  of  soda ; 
let  stand  one  hour  ;  then  add  enough  bicarbonate  of  soda  to  make  the  bath  slightly  alkaline. 
When  the  lights  begin  to  look  a  delicate  lilac,  the  shadows  still  red,  take  out  the  print. — C. 
A.  ZIMMERMAN. 

259.  The  sulphocyanide  bath  will  give,  with  ease,  any  tones,  from  the  rich  brown  color 
only  just  removed  from  the  foxy  tone  of  a  fixed  untoned  picture  to  a  fine  purple  or  pure 
black  with  a  tinge  of  pink  in  the  half-tones.  In  passing  from  the  former  of  these  to 
the  latter,  the  print  assumes  many  very  pleasing  colors,  any  of  which  may  be  retained  by 
stopping  the  further  progress  of  the  solution  at  that  point,  as  the  hypo,  fixing-bath  seems  to 
have  no  perceptible  reducing  effect  upon  the  image  when  toned  with  sulphocyanide. 

All  the  photographic  papers  I  have  used  have  given  me  successful  results  with  this  bath,  and 
I  have  had  no  repetition  of  the  strange  and  perplexing  failure  with  which  my  first  attempts 
were  greeted.  The  prints,  if  required  for  the  very  deepest  tone  the  bath  can  give,  mutt  not 


204  WILSON'S    PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

various  neutralizing  ingredients,  among  which  are  sulphocyanide  of  am- 
monium, tungstate  of  soda,  and  carbonate  of  soda  mixed  with  the  acetate. 
It  is  but  fair  that  the  advocates  of  these  modifications  should  be  heard, 
and  they  are  given  the  opportunity  in  the  notes  hereto. 

be  at  all  over-printed  ;  if,  however,  the  paler  tones  are  sought  for,  a  very  slight  amount  of 
over-printing  may  be  given.  This  alone  is,  in  dark  weather,  a  great  advantage,  as  so  many 
more  copies  can  be  secured  from  each  negative  in  the  course  of  a  day.  I  have  produced 
twelve  prints  with  one  negative  in  about  an  hour  in  sunshine,  at  this  late  season  of  the  year, 
all  of  them  printed  deeply  enough  for  successful  toning.  This  is  a  point  worth  considera- 
tion. The  .prints  should  be  well  washed  before  toning,  that  is,  until  all  the  free  silver  is  re- 
moved. The  toning-bath  which  has  suited  my  purposes  best  has  been  made  as  follows : 

Gold, 1  grain. 

Sulphocyanide  of  Ammonium,        .......     20  grains. 

Water,     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .2  ounces. 

I  have  noticed  that  more  gold  is  used  in  this  than  in  ordinary  toning  processes.  The  image 
is  first  reduced,  on  immersion,  to  a  foxy  tone,  and  then  it  becomes  strengthened  by  degrees 
to  a  series  of  colors,  rich,  warm,  and  brilliant,  ending  in  black.  It  seems  to  me  that  all  of 
them  are  formed  by  the  constant  addition  of  gold  to  the  print;  it  is,  as  it  were,  intensified 
with  gold.  This,  of  course,  involves  a  considerable  expenditure  of  the  precious  metal, 
about  two  grains  or  more  per  sheet  being  used ;  but  if,  as  I  think,  this  gold  is  precipitated 
in  a  manner  which  leaves  the  print  free  from  sulphur,  it  seems  to  me  that  it  goes  to  render 
the  picture  more  permanent,  and  if  this  should  be  found  so  in  practice,  the  extra  expendi- 
ture of  gold  will  not  be  so  much  objected  to. 

I  find  heat  a  great  accelerator  of  the  process,  making  the  toning  as  rapid  as  any  other 
method,  with  perhaps  only  one  or  two  exceptions.  The  bath  can  be  used  over  and  over 
again,  fresh  gold  being  added  as  in  the  cade  of  the  acetate  bath.  A  very  strong  solution  of 
hypo  may  be  used  for  fixing  without  any  risk  of  spoiling  or  reducing  the  tone. — NELSON 
K.  CHERRILL. 

All  difficulties  can  be  avoided  by  the  use  of  the  tungstate  of  soda  bath.  As  it  is  used 
almost  immediately  after  mixing,  the  gold  does  not  precipitate  ;  and  if  there  be  not  sufficient 
gold  in  the  bath,  more  can  be  added  during  the  process,  of  toning  without  danger  of  meali- 
ness. I  should  recommend  those  who  are  successful  with  the  acetate  bath  by  all  means  to 
continue  its  use,  but  to  those  who  find  disappointment  in  its  working  I  say,  "  Give  it  up, 
and  try  tungstate.''  The  tungstate  bath  is. very  similar  to  the  carbonate,  but,  whereas  I 
have  found  the  latter  produce  mealy  prints,  I  have  never  in  a  single  instance  found  tungstate 
a  failure.  The  following  is  the  formula: 

Tungstate  of  Soda, 20  grains. 

Chloride  of  Gold,  .         .         .         .         .         .         ,         .  .1  grain. 

Boiling  Water,        ....  6  or  8  ounces. 

Use  it  as  soon  as  it  has  cooled,  and  after  the  first  batch  of  prints  are  toned  pour  it  into  a 
bottle  and  keep  it  as  the  stock  solution,  and  it  can  always  be  used  without  being  again 
warmed,  merely  adding  sufficient  gold  for  the  day's  toning  a  few  minutes  before  required 
for  use,  and  with  each  grain  of  gold  a  grain  or  two  of  tungstate  of  soda.  This  bath  will  be- 
couie  purple  in  color,  but  that  does  not  signify,  and  it  can  (by  following  the  above  method) 


PRINTING    ON    ALBUMEN    PAPER.  205 

260.  The  chloride  of  gold  sold  by  the  dealers  is  of  such  excellent  and 
uniform  quality,  that  it  is  hardly  of  advantage  to  the  photographer  to 
make  it  himself.  The  operation  is  rather  an  unpleasant  one,  hut  it  is 
simple  enough.  It  should  always  he  done  in  the  open  air,  in  order  to 
avoid  the  fumes,  which  are  poison  to  the  lungs.  It  is  prepared  by  dis- 
solving gold  metal  in  aqua  regia. 

Nitric  Acid,  C.  P., 2  parts. 

Hydrochloric  Acid,  C.  P., 8    ." 

To,  say,  five  gold  dollars,  to  be  added  one  by  one.     A  gentle  heat  should 

be  used  over  and  over  again  indefinitely,  and  will  answer  well  either  for  ordinary  sensitized 
or  for  ready-sensitized  paper. — CHARLES  DURAND. 

I  have  tried  nearly  all  the  toning-baths  I  have  seen  published,  but  with  the  same  result — • 
that  is,  refusing  to  tone  satisfactorily  a  great  number  of  prints.  No  addition  of  gold  would 
restore  them  to  their  primary  working  order ;  but  the  following  I  have  found  effective  and 
always  the  same.  I  have  used  it  for  two  years  with  perfect  success.  I  have  toned  with  it 
as  many  as  five  hundred  cartes  at  once,  besides  nearly  half  that  amount  of  9  x  7,  and  other 
sizes.  It  ended  as  it  began,  with  the  same  uniform  speed  and  quality  of  tone.  It  is  also 
very  quick.  You  can  get  any  variety  of  tone  from  warm  chocolate  to  black  and  white.  Take 

Gold, 1  grain. 

Acetate  of  Soda, 24  grains. 

Carbonate  of  Soda, 4       " 

Water  (warm), 8  ounces. 

£et  it  stand  for  about  two  days  before  using.  "When  it  requires  strengthening,  to  each  grain 
jf  gold  add  twenty-four  grains  acetate  of  soda  to  the  bath  before  using.  If  it  requires  a 
*resh  supply  before  all  the  prints  are  toned,  add  more  gold  (neutralized).  It  will  tone  as  long 
as  there  are  prints  to  tone.  It  will  tone  more  prints  and  better  than  any  I  have  ever  had. 
I  mixed  up  a  bath  at  the  commencement  of  the  year,  and  I  used  the  same  for  twelve  months, 
and  after  toning  many  thousands  of  prints  it  was  as  good  as  ever.  The  first  supply  of  car- 
bonate is  sufficient. — WILLIAM  FERGUSON. 

260.  I  take  two  drachms  of  nitric  acid  and  three  drachms  of  hydrochloric  acid;  in  that  I 
^an  dissolve  a  five-dollar  gold  piece.  That  is  pure  enough ;  the  copper  is  an  advantage 
/ather  than  a  detriment.  In  this  way  you  have  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  grains  of  gold. 
Reduce  that  so  as  to  have  eight  grains  of  gold  to  the  ounce,  or  one  grain  to  each  drachm, 
and  you  will  always  know  when  you  pour  it  out  how  much  you  have.  That  will  give  you 
about  sixteen  or  seventeen  fluid  ounces  to  a  five-dollar  gold  piece.  That  will  keep.  You 
may  put  in  salt  if  you  choose  ;  I  sometimes  do  that.  This  solution  will  go  farther  than  any 
you  buy.  A  few  hours  before  you  use  it,  neutralize  it  with  bicarbonate  of  soda,  borax,  or 
any  of  the  alkalies  you  have  a  fancy  for,  or  according  to  the  tone  you  desire.  Bicarbonate 
of  soda  will  give  you  a  brown  tone,  and  borax  a  black.  Make  it  up  a  few  hours  before  you 
want  to  use  it,  so  that  it  will  turn  litmus-paper  blue,  and  I  do  not  believe  you  can  prepare 
gold  to  make  better  tones.  When  you  make  this  solution  it  is  acid,  but  you  can  neutralize 
it  with  bicarbonate  of  soda  down  to  the  point  where  a  drop  of  it  will  turn  green,  or  you  can 
make  it  perfectly  neutral,  and  add  a  little  aqua  regia. — H.  J.  NEWTON. 


206  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

be  applied,  and  the  resulting  mass  well  washed  and  dried,  twice.     To 
every  grain  of  gold  used,  add  one  drachm  of  water. 

261.  From  the  toning  solution  the  prints  are  now  removed  to  the  fix- 
ing-bath. 

"Water,         ..........     32  ounces. 

Hyposulphite  of  Soda, 5       " 

Carbonate  of  Ammonia,      .         .         .         .         .         .  1       " 

The  prints  should  remain  in  the  above  solution  for  fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes,  according  to  temperature,  and  constantly  turned  over  singly  to 
insure  thorough  fixing,  after  which  they  should  be  well  washed,  until 
every  trace  of  hypo  is  removed. 

261.  On  removing  the  prints  from  the  toning-bath,  wash  them  several  times  in  pure 
water,  then  place  them  one  by  one,  if  possible,  in  a  bath  containing  three  or  five  grammes 
of  pure  muriatic  acid  to  a  litre  of  water  :  here  let  them  float,  moving  them  about  for  a  few 
minutes,  then  wash  them  further  for  two  or  three  minutes  in  pure  water  to  remove  the  acid. 
On  warm  days  the  operation  should  last  longer  than  on  cold.  The  prints  are  then  placed  in 
the  fixing-bath,  and  in  those  rare  cases  when  the  finished  prints  have  a  slightly  yellowish  tone 
after  the  removal  of  the  acid,  should  be  first  put  for  a  couple  of  seconds  into  a  solution 
of  five  grammes  of  ammonia  to  a  litre  of  water  ;  then  washed  once,  and  placed  in  a  hyposul- 
phite of  soda  bath.  In  this  way  any  alteration  of  tone  is  rendered  impossible. — J.  L.  GIHON. 

See  that  the  hypo  is  not  acid.  It  should  be  neutral,  or  even  slightly  alkaline.  The  hypo 
should  be  made  up  fresh  every  day,  especially  during  summer.  Drain  the  prints  well  from 
the  hypo,  and  place  in  strong  solution  of  salt  for  five  minutes,  moving  them  about  all  the 
time,  and  then  put  them  in  running  water  for  three  hours.  It  is  better  to  make  the  hypo 
and  salt  solution  two  or  three  hours  before  using  it,  as  both  hypo  and  salt  make  the  water 
several  degrees  colder.  The  neglect  of  this  is  one  common  cause  of  blisters. — H.  C.  BRIDLE. 

There  is  a  diversity  of  opinion  among  photographers  about  the  strength  of  the  fixing, 
bath,  some  using  it  much  stronger  than  others  do.  I  am  inclined  towards  having  a  weak 
bath,  and  fixing  a  longer  time  than  I  would  with  a  strong  bath,  as  the  action  will  be  more 
gentle,  and  on  the  whole  better  results  are  obtained  by  so  doing,  and  blistering  and  bleach- 
ing are,  in  a  great  measure,  cured.  It  is  very  important  that  the  hypo  bath  should  be  made 
up  every  time  you  require  its  use,  as  old  hypo-baths  are  very  injurious  to  the  prints.  Take  a 
two-gallon  bottle,  and  place  in  it  about  ten  pounds  of  hypo  crystals,  fill  up  with  water,  shake 
well,  and  label  this  bottle,  "Sat.  Sol.  Hyposulphite  of  Soda."  It  is  now  ready  to  use  in 
making  the  bath  as  per  formula  given  below.  To  make  sure  of  this  hypo  solution  becoming 
saturated,  prepare  it  at  least  two  days  before  you  wish  to  use  it.  Just  before  using,  shake 
the  contents  in  the  bottle  for  about  two  minutes.  When  you  wish  to  make  the  bath,  take  of 

Water, 8  ounces. 

Sat.  Sol.  Hyposulphite  of  Soda, 1  ounce. 

Sat.  Sol.  Bicarbonate  of  Soda, J    " 

Larger  quantities  in  same  proportion.     Make  this  bath  in  a  dish  which  is  kept  expressly  for 
this  purpose,  arid  this  alone. — C.  W.  HEARN,  in  the  Practical  Printer. 


PRINTING    ON    ALBUMEN    PAPER.  207 

262.  One  of  the  chief  evils  of  the  printer's  life  is  the  phenomenon 
known  as  "  blistering  "  of  the  prints.     Much  speculation  has  ensued  as 
to  its  cause,  and  it  is  generally  conceded  to  be  governed  largely  by  the 
temperature  of  the  solution  and  wash-waters  used.     If  these  are  uniform 
in  temperature,  "  blisters  "  are  not  apt  to  occur.     Another  method  of  pre- 
venting them  is  to  remove  the  prints  from  the  fixing-bath  to  a  salt  solu- 
tion. 

Water, 1  gallon. 

Table  Salt, 16  ounces. 

Allow  them  to  soak  in  this  for  say  ten  minutes  previous  to  the  final 
washing. 

263.  The  great  blemish  upon  the  character  of  photographic  prints  is 
that  they  oftentimes  "  do  all  fade  as  a  leaf."     All  sorts  of  efforts  are  made 
to  prevent  this,  but  the  most  effectual  is  that  of  carefully  washing  them 
in  several  changes  of  water.     Where  it  can  be  had,  running  water  is  the 
best,  for  it  is  self-changing ;  but  the  same  end  is  accomplished  by  chang- 
ing the  prints  with  the  hands  from  one  water  to  another,  using  a  clothes- 

262.  To  avoid  blisters,  have  all  your  washings  and  solutions  the  same  temperature  as  near 
as  possible  ;  remember,  your  solutions  act  more  perfectly  and  energetically  if  warm  ;  about 
ninety  degrees  is  the  best  for  the  above  use.     I  can  make  blisters  all  the  time  by  changing 
the  temperature  of  solutions,  that  is,  from  warm  to  cold,  or  cold  to  hot.     If  all  your  wash- 
ings and  solutions  are  of  one  temperature,  you  will  never  be  troubled  with  blisters. — A. 
HKSLER. 

As  an  absolutely  reliable  remedy  against  the  formation  of  blisters  on  albumen  paper,  lay 
the  paper,  with  the  prepared  side,  on  a  sheet  of  blotting-paper,  and  then  wash  the  back  of  it 
with  a  very  damp  sponge.  The  sheet  thus  handled  must  dry  in  the  air,  as  drying  with  heat 
will  cause  red  spots,  especially  when  pink  paper  is  used. — DR.  J.  SCHNAUS. 

263.  Several  years  since  I  published  a  simple  and  effectual  method  of  cleaning  the  prints 
of  hyposulphite  of  soda  by  employing  the  acetate  or  nitrate  of  lead ;  whether  this  process 
would  leave  the  prints  in  a  condition  that  would  secure  greater  permanency  was  a  question 
which  time  only  could  determine.     I  think  the  verdict,  without  a  single  exception,  from 
those  who  have  given  it  a  trial,  has  been,  in  its  favor. 

I  have  kept  prints  treated  with  the  lead  about  six  years,  and  some  of  them  have  been  ex- 
posed for  eight  or  ten  months  at  a  time  to  the  direct  action  of  sunlight,  and  yet  show  no 
perceptible  change,  while  prints  made  at  the  same  time  and  treated  the  same  in  all  respects, 
except  the  washing,  which  was  of  the  ordinary  kind,  have  become  yellow  and  faded.  The 
process  is  as  follows  :  Make  a  stock  solution  of  the  salts  of  lead,  before  mentioned,  by  dis- 
solving two  ounces  in  sixteen  ounces  of  water.  If  nitrate  of  lead  is  used,  the  water  had 
better  be  hot,  as  it  dissolves  very  slowly  in  cold  water.  When  the  prints  are  fixed,  wash 
them  off  in  two  or  three  changes  of  water,  and  place  them  in  water  containing  two  ounces 
of  stock  solution  to  every  four  quarts  of  water;  they  need  remain  in  this  lead- water  only 
from  five  to  ten  minutes,  and  then  they  should  again  be  washed  in  a  few  changes  of  water 


208 


WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 


FIG.  64. 


wringer  frequently  between  the  operations.  The  last  application  of  the 
water  should  remove  all  spots  and  specks  from  the  surface  of  the  pictures 
previous  to  their  being  mounted  upon  the  cards  intended  for  them.  Al- 
lowing the  prints  to  remain  in  "  lead-water  "  a  few  moments  is  highly 
recommended. 

264.  After  the  final  and  thorough  washing  of  the  prints,  they  must  be 
taken  from  the  water,  and  unless,  as  some  prefer,  they  are  mounted  upon 

the  cards  wet,  they  are  then  dried.  One  way 
is  to  hang  them  back  to  back  upon  a  rack 
provided  with  cords,  as  shown  in  Fig.  64.  If 
this  method  is  practised,  the  cords  should  be 
frequently  changed,  lest,  becoming  stained, 
they  injure  the  prints.  The  best  method  is  to 
place  the  wet  prints  between  chemically  pure 
white  blotting-pads,  and  there  allow  them  to 
remain  until  dry.  These  blotting-pads,  too, 
must  be  occasionally  renewed.  The  "  Treas- 
ury "  blotter  is  the  purest  and  best. 

and  the  work  is  completed,  and,  by  applying  the  most  delicate  tests,  no  trace  of  hypo  will  be 
found.  When  the  lead  solution  is  put 'into  the  water  to  receive  the  prints,  there  will  be  pro- 
duced a  trace  of  carbonate  of  lead,  which  will  give  the  water  a  milky  appearance.  If  the 
prints  are  put  into  it  in  this  condition,  the  albumen  surface  will  be  injured  by  the  carbonate 
adhering  to  it.  The  carbonate  should  therefore  be  dissolved  before  the  prints  are  put  into 
it,  which  is  done  by  adding  a  little  acetic  acid,  just  sufficient  to  make  the  water  clear. — 
H.  J.  NEWTON. 

The  principal  use  of  this  room  is  to  sensitize  the  paper  after  it  is  albumenized,  or,  in  the 
case  of  the  plain  paper,  after  it  is  salted,  and  then  later  in  the  day,  when  the  sensitizing  is 

through  with,  to  tone  and  fix  as  well  as  to  wash 
the  prints  in,  all  of  which  things  can  be  done 
without  at  all  interfering  with  each  other.  A  is 
a  dark  curtain,  which  in  the  figure  is  partly 
raised,  but  during  the  silvering  and  toning  pro- 
cess it  is  brought  down  to  AX,  and  the  white 
bleached  cloth  screen,  B  (which  is  shaded  in  the 
figure  so  as  to  show  it  more  distinctly),  covers 
the  rest  of  the  glass,  and  thus  in  the  toning  a 
soft  and  diffused  light  is  given  to  that  part  of  the 
room  (the  shelf,  c,)  where  the  toning  is  done;  D 
is  the  silvering-dish,  and  D'  is  the  place  where 
this  silvering-dish  is  kept  when  not  in  use;  B 
is  where  the  kettle  of  potash  is  kept  for  the  purpose  of  cleaning  old  plates ;  r  is  where  the 
nitric  acid  tray  is  kept ;  a  a  are  two  sinks;  H  is  a  shelf  on  which  the  ton  ing-bottles  may  be 


FIG.  65. 


PRINTING    ON    ALBUMEN    P^PER.  209 

265.  The  same  general  rules  adapted  to  printing  portraits  are  also  ap- 
plicable to  landscape  printing,  except  that  in  the  latter  case  clouds  are 
sometimes  "printed  in*'  or  worked  upon  the  negative.  Upon  the  subject 
of  stereoscopic  printing,  however,  a  few  notes  will  not  be. out  of  place, 
both  as  to  the  preparation  of  the  negative  for  printing  and  for  printing 
the  same.  Some  "  Centennial"  experience  will  now  come  in  well,  but 
another  shall  tell  of  it. 

kept ;  K  is  a  rack  with  three  overlapping  pieces  of  wood,  to  which  there  are  a  number  of 
spring  clips  attached,  which  hold  the  pictures  while  draining  as  they  are  removed  from  the 
water;  L  is  a  washing-tank  which  has  a  perforated  false  bottom,  through  which  the  water 
passes  into  the  lower  part,  and  thence  into  the  waste-pipe  L/.  The  stop-cock,  M,  is  adjusted 
after  the  tank  becomes  three-quarters  filled,  so  that  it  will  permit  the  water  to  flow  out  as 
fast  as  it  enters  through  the  pipe,  N;  PPIS  an  overflow  pipe  which  conducts  the  water, 
when  it  reaches  that  place,  into  the  waste-pipe,  I/ ;  R  is  the  place  where  the  hypo-dish  is 
kept;  s  is  the  place  where  the  two-gallon  hypo-bottle  is  placed.  This  bottle  is  always  kept 
full  of  a  saturated  solution  of  hyposulphite  of  soda,  v  is  the  door  that  leads  into  the  drying- 
room. — C.  W.  HEARN,  in  the  Practical  Printer. 

In  answer  to  the  question  in  the  Philadelphia  Photographer,  "What  is  the  best  way  to 
wash  prints  when  the  water  supply  is  small?  My  plan  is  to  use  Newton's  acetate  of  lead 
bath,  and  having  used  it  over  a  year,  I  can  say  it  is  a  great  saving  of  time  and  of  water, 
besides  the  prints  have  a  greater  gloss  than  with  the  old  method  of  long  washing;  and  as  to 
their  keeping  qualities,  so  far  I  think  they  have  done  well.  The  prints  will  last  in  direct 
sunlight  longer  than  those  washed  by  the  old  method. — W.  H.  KIBBE. 

265.  No  eyes,  however  good  their  capacities  for  seeing,  can  at  a  glance  gauge  the  separate 
sides  of  a  stereo.  It  was  obviously  necessary  to  place  guide  marks  upon  the  negatives. 
These  had  to  be  most  carefully  adjusted,  otherwise  the  FIG  6fi 

effect  of  relief  would  be  marred,  and  the  complaint  would 

come  from  the  office  that  prints  from  negative  number 

were  not  stereoscopic  when  looked  at  through  an  instru- 
ment. The  method  of  placing  those  register  lines  was  for 
awhile  a  serious  difficulty.  A  number  of  different  plans 
were  adopted  from  time  to  time.  Ours  was  to  make  use  of 
an  ordinary  retouching-stand.  Upon  the  ground-glass 
inclosed  by  it  draw  a  few  lines  as  shown  by  the  diagram 
Place  one  side  of  the  stereo,  negative  on  the  ground-glass, 
over  the  indicated  shape,  and  adjust  it  to  suit  the  require- 
ments of  the  subject.  You  will  see  that  there  is  a  perpendicular  line.  Note  with  the  utmost 
exactness  where  that  mark  intersects  the  first  half  of  your  negative.  Then  slide  your  plate 
across  the  frame,  and  make  the  same  perpendicular  pass  through  exactly  the  same  points  on 
the  other  side.  The  establishment  of  a  base  line  is  the  first  item  to  be  attended  to.  Make  use 
of  any  sharp  instrument,  and  with  it  scratch  a  line  across  the  bottom  of  your  negative,  being 
careful  to  make  the  line  pass  through  the  same  points  that  arc  indicated  on  each  side.  After 
having  arranged  your  negative  over  the  shape,  paste  a  piece  or  rather  a  strip  of  yellow 
paper  along  the  edge  that  is  marked  2.  After  moving  the  negative  across  the  retouching- 
14 


210  WJLSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

Both  in  printing  and  toning  stereoscopic  pictures  see  that  both  ends  are 
of  the  same  depth  and  color.  It  looks  exceedingly  bad  to  see  one  end 
lighter  than  the  other,  or  one  end  a  deeper  tone  than  the  other.  If  the 
ends  of  the  negative  vary  in  strength — and  this  is  often  the  case — then  a 
thickness  or  two  of  tissue-paper  will  be  found  enough  to  correct  the  evil. 
It  hardly  pays  to  print  clouds  in  pictures  so  small  as  the  stereoscopic  size, 
and  yet  they  add  much  to  the  charm  of  the  prints  if  they  can  be  intro- 
duced. If  they  are,  they  should  be  natural  and  not  artificial.  The  nicest 
attention  to  details  is  required  in  stereoscopic  work. 

stand  and  placing  it  as  I  have  directed,  that  is,  with  the  perpendicular  pencilled  line  of  the 
ground-glass  showing  through  exactly  the  same  points  of  the  subject,  paste  another  strip  of 
paper  along  edge  1.  You  now  have  the  negative  with  a  line  at  the  bottom  across  its  entire 
length,  and  with  a  guide  at  each  side.  Prints  made  from  it  so  prepared  will  plainly  show 
a  black  base-line  and  white  uprights  at  each  end  of  the  strip. — JOHN  L.  GIHON. 

I  send  you  a  little  dodge  in  the  printing  line,  which  I  find  useful  in  making  prints  from 
stereoscopic  negatives,  and  by  which  cutting  and  transposing  either  the  prints  or  the  nega- 
tives are  saved.  In  the  first  place,  I  have  a  bottom  line  on  my  negative,  which  can  be  made 
by  pasting  a  narrow  strip  of  paper,  or  drawing  a  clear  line  with  a  sharp  knife  on  the  base 
of  the  negative,  and  which  serves  as  a  guide  for  cutting  away  the  edge  of  the  print.  Next 
cut  your  paper  in  strips,  suiting  the  width  of  your  negative,  and  just  twice  its  length.  Have 
a  piece  of  smooth,  thin,  opaque  paper  just  the  exact  length  of  the  negative,  draw  a  vertical 
line  on  this  in  the  centre ;  lay  your  paper,  albumenized  side  out,  on  this  mask,  making  the 
ends  to  meet  at  the  line;  now  print  first  on  one  side  and  then  on  the  other,  taking  care  to 
have  the  base-lines  correspond;  and  when  the  print  is  made,  cut  the  paper  in  the  centre,  and 
it  is  already  matched,  transposed,  and  ready  to  have  the  corners  trimmed  either  round  or 
square,  and  mounted. — E.  P.  LIBBY. 

My  method  of  printing  clouds  is  as  follows  :  After  I  have  placed  the  sensitized  paper  in 
contact  with  the  negative,  I  take  some  red  and  black  ink,  and  mix  to  a  fairly  non-actinic 
color,  thickening  with  a  little  gum  to  the  consistency  of  cream,  and  then  smear  with  a  thin 
piece  of  stick  (say  the  point  of  a  penholder),  lightly,  in  front  of  the  plate  with  varying, 
irregular  lines  between,  say,  a  high  hill  and  a  castle  or  church;  in  fact,  anywhere  where 
the  print  would  look  all  one  mass  of  light.  After  this  application  I  very  lightly  brush  these 
smears  with  a  very  fine,  broad  camel's-hair  brush  (such  as  grainers  use)  various  ways,  but 
more  especially  obliquely  in  both  directions,  and  the  clouds  appear  in  the  one  printing 
equal  or  even  superior  to  prints  which  require  two  separate  printings,  besides  saving  con- 
siderable time  and  trouble;  and  this  alone,  to  amateurs,  I  presume,  must  be  a  matter  of 
importance.  Of  course  the  lines  must  not  be  parallel  or  straight,  but  should  take  the 
irregular  form  of  clouds,  and  then  be  shaded  nicely  off  with  the  brush.  Practice  makes 
perfect,  and  a  very  little  practice  in  this  case  is  all  that  is  required. — J.  H.  STORR. 


LESSOR  K 

PRINTING  ON  PLAIN  PAPER. 

266.  BEFORE  albumenized  paper  came  into  use,  all  paper  photographs 
were  printed  upon  what  is  yet  known  as  "plain"  or  "salted"  paper. 
It  is  still  used  for  enlargements,  copies,  and  for  such  pictures  as  are  to  be 
afterwards  finished  by  means  of  color,  crayon,  or  India-ink,  but  is  gradually 
being  supplanted  by  Mr.  Willis'  platinum  process.     Brief  instructions  as 
to  how  such  prints  may  be  produced,  will  follow.     Should  you  prefer  not 
to  salt  your  own  paper,  it  can  be  purchased  of  excellent  quality  of  the 
dealers,  already  salted,  and  thus  some  trouble  is  avoided. 

267.  The  method  here  given  is  known  as  the  ammonio-nitrate  process, 
and  is  the  best  for  the  purpose.     The  salting  solution  consists  of 

Water, 4  quarts. 

Chloride  of  Ammonium, 256  grains. 

White  Gelatin, 100       " 

Dissolve  the  gelatin  in  the  water  by  the  aid  of  heat,  then  stir  in  the 
chloride  of  ammonium  until  dissolved ;  filter  for  use  when  cold.  The 
sheets  of  paper  should  be  entirely  immersed  in  the  solution,  air-bubbles 
being  avoided,  allowed  to  remain  two  minutes,  and  then  hung  up  to  dry 
in  a  room  free  from  dust.  Do  not  use  the  same  clips  employed  for  the 
silvered  paper. 

268.  Silver  solution  for  plain  paper. 

Pure  Kain  or  Distilled  Water, 9  ounces. 

Nitrate  of  Silver, 1  ounce. 

Dissolve  the  silver  in  the  water,  and  separate  three  ounces  of  the  solu- 
tion from  the  i^est,  to  which  add  liquor  ammonia  until  the  oxide  of  silver 
formed  is  redissolved,  and  the  solution  is  again  clear ;  then  add  it  to  the 
remaining  six  ounces  of  solution.  Oxide  of  silver  will  again  be  formed, 
which  can  be  allowed  to  settle  to  the  bottom  of  the  bottle  and  remain 
there  until  the  solution  is  all  used.  This  can  be  applied  to  the  paper  with 

(211) 


212  WILSON'S   PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

a  swab  of  cotton,  wool,  or  canton-flannel.  A  portion  of  the  silver  solu- 
tion should  be  filtered  every  time  it  is  used,  other  .vise  there  will  be  a 
marbled  appearance  on  the  paper,  caused  by  the  scum  which  collects  upon 
the  surface  of  the  solution.  Care  should  also  be  taken  to  apply  the  solu- 
tion evenly  and  lightly,  otherwise  the  surface  of  the  paper  will  be  rough- 
ened. 

269.  After  silvering  the  plain  paper  it  is  dried  by  heat,  and  then  fumed, 
say,  ten  minutes,  when  it  is  ready  for  printing.  Great  care  should  be  ex- 
ercised in  handling  it,  as  it  is  easily  soiled  and  spoiled.  As  a  usual  thing, 
a  weaker  toning  solution  is  required  than  for  albumenized  paper.  A 
good  plan  is  to  tone  the  prints  on  this  paper  after  the  others  are  done. 

269.  To  those  preferring  to  salt  their  own  paper,  the  following  hints  may  be  useful: 
Always  remember  the  quality  of  salt  has  much  to  do  with  the  tint  of  the  print;  the  weight 
of  the  salt  affects  the  picture  in  the  same  manner.  If  the  bath  for  salting  is  under  strength, 
the  print  will  show  it  by  a  weak,  bluish  look,  and  an  entire  absence  of  the  rich  purplish 
contrasts  in  the  face.  Again,  oversalting  will  make  the' printing  slow  and  tedious,  and  the 
blacks  will  be  feeble  and  of  a  reddish  tint ;  measly  spots  are  apt  to  show,  and  the  whole 
print  will  appear  flat  and  unsatisfactory.  It  is  well  to  immerse  some  kinds  of  paper ;  but 
if  the  plain  Saxe  paper  is  used,  it  should  be  only  floated,  not  immersed.  Lay  the  paper 
perfectly  flat,  and  lift  off  again  with  the  same  care  as  in  silvering.  Every  printer  has  his 
own  idea  about  the  amount  of  gelatin  needed  in  connection  with  the  salting  ;  however,  this 
is  a  good  medium  rule  ;  for  ordinary  Saxe  paper,  about  one  box  of  gelatin  to  four  gallons 
of  salting  solution,  in  warm  weather;  in  the  winter  this  quantity  can  be  nearly  doubled. 
If  the  salting  is  done  with  chloride  of  ammonium  alone,  the  prints  will  be  rather  brownish, 
and  the  paper  will  not  keep  so  well,  nor  print  so  rapidly,  as  when  the  ammonium  is  used  in 
equal  proportion  with  the  common  salt.  The  following  are  the  proper  proportions  : 
Chloride  of  Ammonium,  ........  \\  grains. 

Common  Salt, \\       " 

Water, .1  ounce. 

Gelatin,  thirty  grains  to  the  quart,  in  summer;  in  winter,  use  from  fiftv  to  sixty  grains  to 
the  quart. — JOHN  L.  GIHON. 


LESSOR  0. 

GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  PRINTING. 

270.  THE  instructions  given  on  printing,  thus  far,  are  by  no  means  to 
be  considered  exhaustive.     An  effort  has  been  made  to  inform  you  only 
as  to  the  best  known  methods  for  producing  ordinary  photographic  pic- 
tures, and  to  try  to  induce  you  to  exercise  care,  cleanliness,  taste,  neat- 
ness, and  economy  in  producing  them.     Should  you  desire  to  go  further, 
Mr.  Charles  W.  Hearn,  in  his  admirable  work,  the  Practical  Printer,  which 
should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  printer,  will  lead  you  into  all  the  realms 
of  "  fancy,"  "  glace,"  and  "  porcelain  "  printing,  and  give  far  more  elabo- 
rate instructions  throughout  than  it  is  the  province  of  this  rudimentary 
work  to  undertake. 

271.  Printing  surfaces,  too,  are  as  various  as  the  processes.     Photo- 
graphic prints  can  be  made  upon  almost  any  substance  sufficiently  plane 
to  enable  one  to  secure  contact  with  a  negative,  and  non-absorbent,  and 
smooth  enough   to   receive   the   proper  materials  for  printing  thereon. 
Prints  are  made  upon  fabrics  of  all  kinds,  metals,  mica,  wood,  porcelain, 
stone,  leather,  the  human  skin,  enamel,  animal  pelts,  and  what  not,  from 
negatives,  and  by  many  other  methods  on  various  substances. 

272.  But  printing  is  not  confined  to  the  use  of  salts  of  silver,  as,  besides 
the  aniline,  the  platinum,  and  the  carbon  processes  well  known  for  years, 
there  are  various  so-called  photo-mechanical  methods  of  printing  photo- 
graphic pictures.     The  most  ingenious  of  these  bears  the  name  of  its 
inventor,  Mr.  Walter  B.  Woodbury.     Almost  all  the  others  are  founded 
upon  one  principle.     With  them  the  means  of  producing  the  printing 
surfaces  are  varied,  but  the  printing  proper  is  much  the  same  as  litho- 
graphic printing,  and  is  done  in  the  same  sort  of  a  press.     I^one  of  them 
displace   silver  printing  for  every-day  photographic   custom-work,  and 
so  they  will  not  be  treated  of  further  here,  but  will  be  given  more 
attention  in  a  lesson  further  on,  with  some  hints  as  to  the  manner  of 
working  them. 

(213) 


LESSON"    P. 

PRINTING     ON     VARIOUS     SURFACES. 

273.  As  stated  in  Lesson  0,  photographic  prints  may  be  made  upon 
all  sorts  of  surfaces.  A  very  pretty  application  is  to  decorate  the  cor- 
ners of  handkerchiefs  with  the  portrait  of  the  owner,  or  giver,  be  it  linen 
or  silk.  For  engravers'  use,  photographs  on  wood  are  in  demand,  as  they 
give  better  results  than  the  work  of  the  draughtsman  ;  at  least,  they  make 
the  work  of  the  engraver  easier. 

273.  To  PRINT  ON  LINEN. — Make  a  salting  solution  of  two  grains  of  chloride  of  ammonium 
to  every  ounce  of  water.  Make  a  sizing  solution  of 

Water, 1  ounce. 

White  Glue, 2  grains. 

Soak  the  glue  in  hot  water  until  it  is  dissolved,  and  then  apply  the  solution  to  the  part  to  "be 
printed  upon.  When  dry,  apply  the  silver  solution  with  a  tuft  of  cotton,  shielding  the  un- 
sized portions  of  the  linen.  Fume  when  dry,  and  print  in  the  usual  way,  or  in  the  handker- 
chief printing-frame.  Tone  in  your  usual  toning  solutition,  fix,  and  wash  well,  using  hot 
water  for  the  final  washing. — GEORGE  W.  WALLACE. 

PRINTING  ON  SILK. — Pour  20  ounces  of  boiling  water  on  100  grains  of  chloride  of  am- 
monium and  60  grains  of  Iceland  moss.  When  nearly  cold,  filter,  and  immerse  the  silk  in 
it  for  fifteen  minutes.  To  sensitize,  immerse  the  silk  in  a  twenty-grain  solution  of  nitrate 
of  silver  for  sixteen  minutes.  Let  the  nitrate  bath  be  rather  acid.  When  dry,  prepare  for 
printing  by  attaching  the  silk  to  a  piece  of  card-board  a  little  smaller  than  itself,  by  turning 
the  edges  over  and  fastening  with  small  bits  of  gummed  paper ;  slightly  over-print.  Wash 
in  two  or  three  changes  of  water,  and  tone  in  a  gold  bath,  thus : 

Water,     ............     20  ounces. 

Acetate  of  Soda, 2  drachms. 

Chloride  of  Gold, 4  grains. 

Common  Whiting a  few  grains. 

Filter,  and  keep  for  twenty-four  hours  before  using.  Let  the  prints  be  toned  slightly  bluer 
than  required  to  be  when  finished.  Einse  them  in  water,  and  fix  in  a  solution  of  hypo, 
four  ounces  to  the  pint  of  water.  Twenty  minutes  is  ample  time  for  fixing.  Wash  well. — 
T.  C.  PHILLIPS. 

PHOTOGRAPHING  ON  WOOD. — I  use,  first,  salt  albumen  :  beat  the  white  of  one  egg  with 

an  equal  amount  of  water,  making  about  two  ounces ;  add  ten  grains  of  chloride  of  ammonium, 

and  filter;  moisten  the  block  with  water;  whiten  it  with  Chinese  white,  rubbed  up  with 

water,  or  the  enamel  from  a  card  will  do ;  brush  it  smoothly  as  it  dries  ;  when  dry  flow  on  the 

(214) 


PRINTING   ON    VARIOUS   SURFACES. 


215 


FIG.  67. 


274.  A  once  very  popular  style  of  portraits  was  printed  on  porcelain 
glass.  They  have  fallen  into  disuse  somewhat,  because  of  their  readi- 
ness to  fade,  though  they  should  not  do  so  if  properly  washed.  The  notes 
are  referred  to  for  the  means  of  producing  them.  Photographs  printed 

salted  albumen ;  spread  it  over  the  block  with  a  piece  of  glass,  drain,  and  dry;  make  a  little 
wall  around  the  block  with  a  roll  of  wax.  Now  pour  on  the  silver  solution,  and  spread  with 
a  glass  (silver,  the  same  as  for  paper),  drain,  dry,  and  fume 
it ;  after  which  it  will  be  ready  for  printing.  Print  the 
same  as  a  porcelain  ;  tone  with  weak  gold  ;  fix  with  hypo. 
I  use  a  home-made  printing-frame  ;  I  find  it  very  handy 
for  printing  porcelains  and  many  other  things.  I  take  an 
ordinary  8x10  printing-frame,  and  fasten  a  glass  at  the 
bottom.  I  fasten  the  glass  in  the  printing-frame  with 
two  little  wedges  of  wood  at  the  end  of  the  glass.  They 
hold  it  very  firm,  and  are  easily  taken  out  when  you  wish 
to  use  the  frame  for  other  kinds  of  printing.  On  the  top 
I  fix  a  triangular-shaped  piece  of  wood  with  hinges,  mak- 
ing the  point  come  at  the  middle  of  the  frame,  screwing  a 
strip  of  brass  across  the  joint  for  a  spring.  I  fasten  the  block 
underneath  with  wax,  so  it  can  be  taken  off.  When  you  wish  to  print  a  block  of  wood, 
stick  the  negative  on  the  plain  glass  with  wax  at  the  corners.  For  printing  on  wood  it  is 
often  necessary  to  use  a  reversed  negative,  which  I  get  by  first  making  a  ferrotype,  and 
whiten  it  with  mercury,  then  make  a  negative  from  it. — CHARLES  HOMAN. 

For  wood-block  printing,  the  sensitizing  solution  is  prepared  in  the  following  proportions: 

Ether, 1  ounce. 

Alcohol, 1     « 

Gun-Cotton, 8  grains. 

When  dissolved,  take  thirty  grains  of  nitrate  of  silver  and  dissolve  in  as  small  a  quantity 
of  water  as  possible,  then  mix  with  the  collodion  just  prepared.  Allow  it  to  stand  in  the 
dark  for  two  or  three  days,  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  It  is  better,  always,  to  keep  it  in  a  dark 
place.  The  sensitive  collodion  being  now  prepared,  pour  it  over  the  block  the  same  as  when 
coating  a  glass  plate.  After  draining,  dry  gently  before  a  fire,  taking  care  not  to  use  too 
much  heat,  as  it  is  apt  to  destroy  the  texture  of  the  wood  and  make  it  brittle.  It  is  now 
ready  to  be  printed  on  in  the  usual  way.  The  print  is  produced  rather  quicker  than  an 
ordinary  paper  one,  and  can  be  examined  with  very  little  more  trouble.  If  not  dark  enough 
when  looked  at,  it  can  be  exposed  again,  as  by  a  little  care  in  setting  the  block  to  the  lines 
already  marked  on  the  negative  there  need  be  no  fear  of  doubling  the  impression.  Print 
very  little  darker  than  what  is  required,  then  dissolve  off  the  film  with  ether  and  alcohol 
mixed  in  equal  proportions.  Gentle  rubbing  with  a  sponge  assists  greatly  in  removing  the 
film,  and  be  particular  that  all  is  removed,  as  if  any  be  left  it  interferes  considerably  with 
the  engraving.  After  this  is  done,  fix  with  hyposulphite  of  soda  for  a  few  minutes,  allow- 
ing only  the  surface  of  the  block  to  touch  the  solution  ;  then  wash  with  a  gentle  stream  of 
water,  taking  care  to  keep  the  back  as  dry  as  possible,  as  the  wood  is  very  apt  to  be  destroyed 
if  allowed  to  get  soaked  with  water.  Set  aside  to  dry,  and  it  is  ready  for  the  engraver  to 
manipulate  on. 


216  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

upon  porcelain  glass,  with  a  ground  surface  and  finely  colored,  are  very 
beautiful ;  though  they,  too,  have  been  largely  superseded  by  the  fine 
results  now  obtainable  without  any  help  from  color. 

A  few  words  now  in  regard  to  the  taking  of  the  negative.  The  process,  of  course,  is  the 
same  as  usual ;  the  only  difference  is  that  the  image  must  be  the  reverse  way  from  ordinary 
work,  which  can  easily  be  accomplished  by  exposing  the  back  of  the  plate  to  the  light  and 
taking  the  image  through  the  glass.  When  the  plate  is  taken  from  the  bath,  drain  thoroughly, 
and  wipe  the  back  perfectly  dry  with  a  piece  of  blotting-paper,  being  careful  to  leave  no 
streaks,  as  they  would  be  sure  to  show  on  the  negative.  Then  put  it  into  the  dark-slide  with 
the  sensitive  side  towards  the  spring.  At  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  plate,  on  the  film  side, 
put  a  strip  of  two-  or  three-ply  of  blotting-paper,  and  then  put  a  glass  plate  on  the  top  of 
that;  by  this  means  you  will  prevent  the  spring  of  the  slide  from  coming  in  contact  with, 
and  damaging,  the  film.  After  focussing,  you  must  measure  the  thickness  of  the  glass  on 
which  you  intend  taking  the  negative,  and  move  back  the  lens  as  much,  otherwise  your 
image  will  not  be  in  focus.  By  this  means  you  will  find  no  difficulty  in  getting  reversed 
negatives.— ALEXANDER  NICOL. 
274.  COLLODION  FOR  PORCELAIN  PICTURES. — 

1. — Negative  Gun-Cotton, 60  grains. 

Alcohol,  .  2  ounces. 

Ether, .       3       " 

Put  three  ounces  of  pure  alcohol  in  a  small  bottle,  add  to  this  120  grains  of  nitrate  of  silver, 
very  finely  powdered.  Set  the  bottle  in  water,  and  heat  to  boiling-point;  keep  it  there 
until  all  the  silver  is  dissolved  in  the  alcohol.  As  soon  as  this  is  done,  pour  the  silver  solution, 
still  hot,  into  the  collodion,  stirring  up  all  the  time  to  secure  a  perfect  solution. 

2. — Chloride  of  Strontium, 32  grains. 

Citric  Acid, 24       " 

Keduce  to  a  fine  powder,  and  dissolve  in  four  ounces  alcohol ;  add 

Ether, 4  ounces. 

Gun-Cotton, 60  grains. 

These  two  collodions  will  keep  for  any  length  of  time,  and  when  mixed  in  equal  proportions 
will  produce  brilliant  prints. — GEORGE  H.  FENNEMORE. 

To  PRINT  ON  PORCELAIN. — Coat  the  porcelain  with  albumen  from  fresh  eggs  and  water, 
equal  quantities.  After  the  plate  has  dried  (without  heat),  warm  it  and  let  it  cool  again. 
Coat  with  the  collodion  (mixture  of  Nos.  1  and  2),  in  a  moderately  dark  room,  and  dry  the 
plate  perfectly  over  a  spirit-lamp.  Lay  the  negative  on  the  prepared  porcelain,  being  sure 
to  have  it  in  the  right  place  ;  protect  the  back  of  the  porcelain  with  yellow  paper,  and  put 
plenty  of  patent  clothes-clips  all  around  the  edge  to  secure  a  good  contact. 

TONING  PORCELAIN  PRINTS. — Wash  first  in  plain  water,  next  in  water  containing  a  very 
little  salt.  Tone  in 

Water,     ............       8  ounces. 

Gold  Solution  (1  grain  per  ounce  strong),       .....       1  drachm. 
After  toning  and  washing,  fix  in 

Hyposulphite  of  Soda, 1  ounce. 

Water, 10  or  12  ounces. 

G.    SCHRKIBER 


LESSOR    Q. 

PRINTING     PERPLEXITIES. 

275.  A  FEW  further  "  indications "  as  to  the  imperfections  in  prints, 
may  not  be  out  of  place.     The  same  faults  were  found,  the  same  tribula- 
tions troubled  the  printer,  in  the  early  days  of  silver  printing  as  now— 
as  then.     With  care  they  can  be  generally  avoided,  but  as  we  are  not 
always  careful,  it  will  be  of  service  to  know  the  cause  of  any  evil  when  it 
presents  itself,  and  thus  have  a  suggestion,  too,  as  to  the  means  of  work- 
ing out  a  cure. 

276.  One  of  the  first  perplexities  which  the  printer  novice  meets,  is  the 
discoloration  of  his  nitrate  bath.     One  of  the  greatest  causes  of  this  an- 
noyance is  leaving  the  solution  uncovered,  exposed  to  dust  and  air,  when 
not  in  use.     Constant  use  also  causes  discoloration,  and  careless  filtration 

275.  Be  sure  that  the  back  of  the  negative  is  clean,  and  that  the  contact  is  perfect  before 
the  negative  is  exposed  to  the  light.     "When  you  wish  to  examine  the  print,  go  slow  and 
sure.     Do  not  allow  the  negative  or  paper  to  slip  from  their  position,  as  that  is  sure  to  spoil 
the  print,  and  result  sometimes  in  spoiling  the  negative.     Over-  or  under-printing  is  equally 
bad.     The  first  results  in  an  unpleasant  heaviness,  while  the  latter  loses  individuality. 
Watch  the  bleaching  effects  of  the  toning-bath  and  fixing  solution,  and  print  to  it.     Antici- 
pate the  tone  before  you  reach  it,  and  print  to  conform  to  it. — I.  B.  WEBSTER. 

276.  The  various  methods  in  practice  for  decolorizing  the  silver  bath  for  printing  are  the 
addition  of  kaolin  ;  carbonate  of  soda  producing  carbonate  of  silver,  or  carbonate  of  silver 
direct;  chloride  of  sodium,  or  chloride  of  silver  ;  citrate  of  soda,  and  other  like  salts  ;  Mr. 
England's  late  method  of  boiling  the  bath ;  and,  lastly,  the  addition  of  a  very  dilute  solution 
of  permanganate  of  potash.     Having  given  a  good  trial  to  most  of  these,  I  can  speak  of  their 
various  capabilities,  and  which,  after  a  long  practice,  I  greatly  prefer  for  decolorizing  the 
printing  bath. 

There  is  nothing  that  answers  more  perfectly  than  the  old-fashioned  stirring  up  with  kao- 
lin, but  it  is  a  very  dirty  process.  It  must  always  be  done  at  the  close  of  work,  as  it  takes  a 
long  time  to  settle;  a  much  larger  quantity  of  solution  must  be  always  kept  than  is  required; 
and  although,  by  treating  it,  when  done  with,  with  nitric  acid,  a  good  quantity  of  silver 
may  be  recovered,  still  I  believe  it  entails  a  great  loss.  Of  the  various  alkaline  salts  which, 
added  to  the  bath,  produce  salts  of  silver  which  unite  with  the  coloring  matter,  and  are 
either  precipitated  together  or  are  filtered  out  in  combination  with  each  other,  the  carbonate 
and  citrate  of  soda  answer  the  best,  but  filtering  is  necessary,  as  they  are  so  long  settling. 

(217J 


218  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

will  do  the  same.  Knowing  the  causes,  it  is  easier  to  prevent  them ;  but 
when  the  trouble  occurs,  the  bath  may  be  rectified  by  the  addition  of 
kaolin,  or  some  neutralizing  ingredient — say  permanganate  of  potash. 

277.  A  mottled  effect  sometimes  appears  on  the  paper  after  coming 
from  the  printing-frame.  This  is  known  as  "  measles,"  and  is  generally 
caused  by  the  paper  being  insufficiently  silvered,  but  sometimes  arises 
from  an  inferior  quality  of  paper,  which  imbibes  the  silver  unevenly.  If 
it  comes  from  a  lack  of  silver,  the  paper  will  print  better  on  the  end  of 
the  sheet  which  is  lowest  when  hung  up  to  dry,  because  the  silver  run- 
ning down  concentrates  in  drying,  thereby  leaving  a  larger  quantity  of 

A  plan  I  tried,  to  avoid  the  loss  of  precipitating  the  silver  from  the  Lath,  and  so  reducing 
its  strength  and  the  consequent  loss  for  the  time  of  the  silver,  was  -to  wash  one  batch  of 
prints  in  as  small  a  quantity  of  rain-water  for  their  first  wash  as  I  could,  pour  off  into  a  jug 
or  large  measure-glass,  and  precipitate  the  silver  roughly  with  carbonate  or  citrate  of  soda; 
without  waiting  for  it  entirely  to  settle,  I  poured  the  liquid  into  the  residue  tub,  and  then 
added  the  precipitate  to  the  printing-bath.  By  this  means  I  avoided  throwing  nitrate  of 
silver  out  of  use  for  some  time. 

Mr.  England's  method  of  heating  the  bath  is  founded  on  the  same  principle  as  sunning 
the  negative  bath,  heat  in  the  former  roughly  doing  what  the  actinic  rays  have  more  deli- 
cately to  do  for  the  latter,  in  both  cases  the  solution  being  made  alkaline.  The  silver  is  par- 
tially reduced  and  precipitated  in  combination  with  the  organic  matters.  This  process  is 
troublesome,  and  takes  time  for  its  accomplishment.  By  far  the  best  of  all  the  methods  I 
have  put  in  practice  is  that  of  the  addition  of  a  dilute  solution  of  permanganate  of  potash;  it 
can  be  done  on  the  instant;  in  fact,  is  best  added  to  the  measure  just  before  pouring  into  the 
floating-dish.  I  have  never  found  filtering  at  all  necessary.  One  great  advantage  it  par- 
ticularly possesses  is,  that  you  can  decolorize  in  the  middle  of  work  without  stopping.  It  is 
well  known  that,  after  floating  a  dozen  sheets  in  a  bath  in  the  heat  of  summer,  the  bath 
begins,  with  some  papers,  to  darken,  and  will  injure  the  purity  of  the  whites  of  vignettes, 
and  it  is  usual  with  printers  to  reserve  the  first  sheets  off  the  bath  especially  for  them  ;  but  if 
you  should  have  a  large  run  of  vignettes,  or  get  used  up  with  your  reserved  sheets,  you 
must  give  up,  or  get  out  a  fresh  bath  ;  but  with  the  permanganate  you  have  only  to  add  a 
little  more  to  the  dish  without  removing,  stir  up,  and  you  are  as  clean  as  at  first  starting. 
About  a  drachm  a  day  of  a  ten-grain  solution  is  quite  enough  for  a  gallon  of  bath.  There 
is  only  one  thing  I  have  found  necessary  to  take  care  of,  which  is,  not  to  add  more  than  is 
just  necessary  to  take  out  the  color.  I  fancy  that  more  than  this  somewhat  reduces  the  vigor 
of  the  proofs.  I  only  hope  that  those  who  have  not  done  so  will  give  it  a  fair  trial,  and  they 
will  soon  give  up  every  other  method  for  it. — F.  G.  ELIOT. 

277.  For  the  information  of  those  who  do  not  understand  the  chemistry  of  nitrate  of  silver 
and  alkaline  salts,  I  will  try  to  explain  the  action  of  neutralizing  agents.  If  ammonia  or 
carbonate  of  soda  be  used  to  neutralize  a  bath,  a  reaction  takes  place, — a  simple  one  with  am- 
monia,— in  which  the  nitric  acid  combines  with  the  ammonia  to  form  nitrate  of  ammonium, 
which  remains  in  solution  in  the  bath  as  a  neutral  salt.  With  carbonate  of  soda  a  double 
reaction,  in  which  the  base,  the  metal  sodium  oxide,  is  converted  into  nitrate  of  soda,  and 


PRINTING    PERPLEXITIES.  219 

free  nitrate  in  that  part  of  the  sheet.  If  the  paper  itself  is  in  fault,  the 
mottled  appearance  will  be  evenly  distributed  all  over.  The  remedy  is 
to  float  your  paper  longer,  if  it  is  under-silvered,  providing  you  are  float- 
ing less  than  two  minutes ;  if  you  are  floating  it  that  length  of  time  or 
more,  strengthen  your  solution  about  ten  grains  to  the  ounce,  and  try  it 
again.  When  the  paper  itself  is  in  fault,  it  is  generally  caused  by  the 
sizing ;  lay  it  in  a  damp  place  for  some  time,  until  the  sizing  gets  soft- 
ened ;  it  will  then  absorb  the  silver  solution  better. 

278.  Red  marbled  lines,  and  a  quantity  of  minute  red  specks  after  ton- 
ing, but  not  visible  before,  are  seen  on  the  prints.     There  is  no  remedy 
for  such  paper.     It  is  badly  albumenized ;  the  lines  are  formed  by  the  al- 
bumen running  unevenly  down  to  the  edges,  and  the  red  specks  by  dust  set- 
tling upon  the  surface  when  drying.     Minute  air-bubbles  in  the  albumen 
are  also  a  frequent  cause  of  red  specks.     All  paper  causing  these  should 
be  rejected  at  once  and  sent  back  to  the  dealer. 

279.  The  paper  has  a  marbled  appearance  after  silvering.      This  is 
caused  by  dust  and  scum  floating  upon  the  surface  of  the  silver  solution, 

remains  in  the  bath  in  solution  as  a  neutral  nitrate,  and  the  carbonic  acid  combines  with  an 
equivalent  of  silver  oxide  to  form  carbonate  of  silver,  which  falls  to  the  bottom  as  a  white 
precipitate.  The  nitrates  of  ammonium  and  sodium  in  the  bath  can  only  be  regarded  as 
idle  matter,  better  out  of  the  way. — F.  M.  SPEXCER. 

I  used  to  make  a  great  mistake  in  testing  the  printing-bath  by  using  blue  litmus-paper, 
supposing  that  if  it  did  not  turn  red  that  it  was  alkaline  ;  but  I  was  continually  tormented 
with  what  is  termed  measles,  until,  through  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Hearn,  I  was  advised  to  use 
red  litmus-paper,  and  when  that  turns  slightly  blue  I  am  sure  of  an  alkaline  bath.  It  should 
be  tested  every  morning  after  it  is  filtered,  before  using,  and  if  not  alkaline  add  ammonia. 
Never  add  muriatic  acid  just  before  using;  if  too  weak,  add  a  few  crystals  of  silver  and  a 
little  camphor,  and  go  ahead  with  your  silvering.  Keep  camphor  in  stock  prepared  as  fol- 
lows : 

Gum  Camphor,         ..........     1  ounce. 

Alcohol,  ............6  ounces. 

C.  M.  FRENCH. 

278.  Sometimes  there  is  a  want  of  affinity  between  the  sensitizing  solution  and  the  albu- 
menized paper.     The  cause  is  a  simple  one,  easily  rectified.     The  silver  solution  is  too  strong 
for  the  paper,  and  thus  causes  red  globules  and  zigzag  or  marbled  lines.     The  difficulty  oc- 
curs only  when  the  paper  is  too  heavily  albumenized.     Papers  coated  with  weak  albumen, 
sensitize  evenly  with  silver  solutions  on  any  strength,  simply  because  the  pores  are  left  open 
to  exercise  capillary  suction.     It  is  a  curious  fact  that  heavily  albumenized  papers  require 
the  weakest  silver  bath. — J.  L.  GIHON. 

279.  To  take  albumen  out  of  silver  soluiion  for  printing,  dissolve  one  ounce  of  gum  cam- 
phor in  six  ounces  of  ninety-five  per  cent,  alcohol ;  of  this,  add  to  any  positive  silver  bath 
(that  has  albumen  in  it,  or  becomes  black  or  foul)  a  few  drops  at  a  time,  and  shake  it  well; 


220  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

and  by  the  solution  becoming  contaminated  with  albumen.  Always  filter 
before  use ;  and  if  the  solution  remains  in  the  dish  any  length  of  time, 
draw  a  couple  of  strips  of  paper  over  it  to  remove  the  scum. 

280.  Red  patches  formed  during  toning.      These  are  caused  by  the 
prints  being  allowed  to  rise  above  the  surface  of  the  solution,  by  two  or 
more  prints  sticking  together,  and  by  air-bubbles  forming  between  the 
prints.     The  remedy  is  to  tone  but  a  few  at  a  time,  and  keep  them  mov- 
ing in  the  solution. 

281.  Defective  toning.     When  the  prints  are  red  after  fixing,  they  have 
been  insufficiently  toned ;  when  a  cold  blue,  they  have  been  excessively 
toned;  when  prints  are  toned  to  a  blue,  and  get  very  red  in  the  hypo, 
the  gold  bath  is  too  strong,  the  gold  attacking  and  toning  the  surface  be- 
fore it  has  time  to  penetrate  through  the  print.     The  remedy  for  this  is 
obvious. 

if  the  bubbles  do  not  break  when  the  bottle  is  set  down,  add  a  little  more  until  it  ceases  to 
froth  or  bubble,  then  filter  at  once.  If  the  silver  should  turn  after  filtering,  add  a  very  few 
drops  of  permanganate  of  potash,  which  will  clear  it  up  at  once.  This  last  should  only  be 
added  drop  by  drop  in  quantum  suf.,  else  the  albumen  surface  will  be  injured. — JOHN  K. 
CLEMONS. 

For  removing  albumen  from  silver  baths,  to  save  alcohol,  place  your  silver  bath  in  an 
evaporating-dish  and  reduce  it  to  about  one-third  or  so,  then  pour  it  into  a  common  glazed 
pie-dish,  or,  if  not  convenient,  any  ordinary  flat  dish  will  do.  Let  it  be  kept  for  that  pur- 
pose. When  the  solution  is  cold,  add  about  an  equal  quantity  of  alcohol,  then  light  with  a 
match  ;  it  should  burn  about  five  miuutes.  Place  the  bath  where  the  air  will  not  affect  the 
flame.  When  the  flame  expires,  the  solution  will  be  entirely  clear  of  red  or  dark  matter,  and 
the  albumen  will  be  found  coagulated  at  the  bottom  of  the  dish,  and  can  be  readily  removed 
by  filtration.  By  this  process  any  albumen  bath — no  matter  how  dark  or  how  filthy — can 
be  quickly  and  effectually  cleansed. — JOHN  E.  CLEMONS. 

281.  My  treatment  of  the  gold  I  find  to  be  well  adapted  to  the  printing  process.  My  ton- 
ing-bath,  stock  solution,  is  formed  of 

Chloride  of  Gold, 30  grains. 

Acetate  of  Sodium, 30        " 

Water,     . .30  ounces. 

With  my  prints,  I  find  no  difficulty  in  using  it  immediately,  but  prefer  not  to  use  it  until 
a  few  hours  after  making.  When  required  for  use,  I  take  water  sufficient  to  contain  the 
prints  made  from  four  sheets  of  paper,  and  to  this  I  add  one  ounce  of  the  stock  solution.  This 
Is  sufficient  to  tone  four  sheets.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  stock -solution  contains  one  grain 
of  gold  for  each  ounce  of  water.  It  follows  then  that  one  grain  of  chloride  of  gold  will 
tone  four  sheets  of  paper.  This  may  be  considered  too  much  paper  for  the  amount  of  gold, 
seeing  that  the  usual  direction  prescribes  a  grain  of  gold  for  each  sheet.  Dr.  Vogel,  refer- 
ring to  this  subject  (see  Handbook,  p.  139),  says,  "  We  have  to  calculate  0.06  gramme  equal 
to  one  grain  of  gold  for  every  sheet  of  paper,"  whereas  my  regular  practice  is  to  tone  the 


PRINTING   PERPLEXITIES.  221 

282.  The  finished  prints  have  a  dark,  mottled  appearance  when  viewed 
I  v  transmitted  light.     This  is  caused  by  imperfect  fixing.     Either  the 
J\ypo  solution  is  too  weak,  or  the  prints  were  not  allowed  to  remain  in  it 
long  enough.     They  should  be  left  in  the  solution   until  you  can  see 
nothing  but  the  fibre  of  the  paper  in  the  white  parts  of  the  print  when 
held  up  to  the  light.     If  this  is  not  done,  they  are  apt  to  fade  or  turn  yel- 
low in  a  short  time. 

283.  Yellowness  of  the  prints  when  finished.     Several  causes  will  pro- 
duce this,  such  as  leaving  the  prints  in  the  hypo  longer  than  necessary  to 

number  of  sheets  stated ;  and  I  have  frequently,  for  experiment,  put  as  many  as  seven  sheets 
at  once  into  the  bath,  with  only  one  grain  of  gold,  and  have  succeeded  in  toning  the  whole 
quantity  well  and  thoroughly. — W.  H.  SHERMAN. 

Care  should  be  taken  not  to  use  too  weak  a  gold  solution.     I  like  this  : 

A. — Chloride  of  Gold,    ..........         1  grain. 

Water, 1  litre. 

B.— Acetate  of  Soda, 15  grains. 

Water, 500       " 

Pour  the  solution  A  into  the  solution  B  ;  to  this  four  drops  of  a  saturated  solution  of  cupric 
sulphate  should  be  added,  and  the  whole  allowed  to  stand  for  a  few  days.  The  pictures 
should  be  toned  only  until  the  half-tones  appear  somewhat  bluish.  The  proper  tone  may  be 
judged  by  watching  the  progress  of  the  toning  of  the  face  specially.  The  operator  will  per- 
haps fear  that  his  results  are  too  red,  but  it  will  be  found  that  the  pictures  are  properly  toned 
and  the  whites  beautifully  colored  after  fixing.  A  weak  fixing-bath,  say  one  to  ten,  is  rec- 
ommended.— HERR  RICHTER. 

The  process  I  follow  is :  Pour  out  a  sufficiency  of  your  old  bath,  and  add  your  gold  about 
fifteen  minutes  before  toning,  stirring  well;  then,  just  before  toning,  add  enough  saturated 
solution  of  sal-soda  to  render  the  whole  slippery  to  the  touch.  Do  not  try  to  make  it  just  al- 
kaline, and  test  with  litmus  ;  for  it  will  not  work.  It  will  only  bleach,  and  leave  the  half- 
tones dirty  and  bricky.  So  do  not  be  afraid,  but  pour  in  till  it  is  alkaline  to  the  touch.  The 
amount  may  be  from  one-half  ounce  to  one  ounce  of  the  saturated  solution  to  the  gallon  of 
bath.  This  will  tone  brown,  blue,  or  black ;  but  if  the  latter  is  desired,  of  course  an  addi- 
tion of  chioride  of  lime  helps  the  matter,  but  also  sooner  spoils  the  bath. — M.  L.  DAQGETT. 

282.  To  secure  permanent  prints,  wash  them  in  ivarm  water,  but  do  not  boil  them.     All 
sorts  of  learned  reasons  have  been  given  concerning  the  formation  of  insoluble  compounds 
and  their  destructive  nature  and  effects  ;  but  long  years  of  experience  have  taught  me  that 
the  best  preventive  against  fading  is  warm-water  washing,  either  in  winter  or  summer. 
Since  I  adopted  this  plan,  many  years  ago,  I  have  never  seen  one  of  my  prints  fade;  while 
those  of  others  alongside  have  exhibited  symptoms  of  yellow  fever,  increasing  in  intensity 
until  they  became  defunct  or  melancholy  evidences  of  carelessness.     Some  may  say — "But 
warm-water  washing  injures  the  tone."     I  say — "Not  necessarily  so."     But,  if  it  does,  be 
bold  and  honest  enough  to  sacrifice  tone  for  permanency. — J.  WERGE. 

283.  Nitroprusside  of  soda  is  one  of  the  most  delicate  tests  for  alkaline  sulphides  known. 
This  salt  requires  about  two  and  a  half  parts  of  cold  water  for  solution.     Its  solution  is  de- 


222  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

clear  them;  acidity  of  the  fixing-bath  (this  can  be  avoided  by  using  car- 
bonate of  ammonia  with  the  hypo,  or  where  this  cannot  be  obtained,  a 
little  bicarbonate  of  soda  or  a  drop  or  two  of  ammonia,  wrill  neutralize  all 
acidity);  the  hypo-bath  used  until  decomposition  takes  place.  The  latter 
is  a  fruitful  cause  of  yellow  prints.  Never  use  it  more  than  twice,  and  it 
is  much  better  to  make  it  fresh  every  time.  Extreme  warm  and  sultry 
weather  will  sometimes  turn  some  samples  of  paper  yellow  beyond  re- 
demption. The  same  effect  is  produced  by  keeping  paper  some  days 
between  the  time  of  sensitizing  and  printing.  Frequent  tests  should 
be  made,  if  danger  is  suspected. 

284.  Yellow  patches  and  stains.  These  are  caused  by  careless  manip- 
ulations, such  as  finger-marks  upon  the  surface  of  the  paper;  washing  the 
prints  in  imperfectly  cleaned  dishes,  or  in  the  tank  that  received  the  prints 
from  the  hypo  the  day  before;  hypo  on  the  fingers  while  toning.  If 
there  is  the  least  trace  of  silver  in  the  tank  when  it  receives  the  prints 
from  the  hypo,  they  will  all  be  stained,  and  vice  versa.  If  there  is  the 
least  amount  of  hypo  in  the  water  while  washing  the  silver  out  of  the 
prints,  they  will  be  stained.  To  know  the  above  causes  is  to  know  the 

composed  by  the  sun's  rays.  The  crystals  are  rhombic  and  of  a  splendid  ruby  color,  and 
give  a  most  beautiful  violet  tint  with  soluble  sulphides — such  as  hyposulphite  of  soda,  etc. 
— JOHN  R.  CLEMONS. 

284.  Now  for  the  secret  of  pure  whites,  and  the  only  way  you  can  get  them  pure.  Pro- 
cure your  half  ounce  of  aniline  blue,  letter  R,  and  dissolve  it  in  sixteen  ounces  of  water. 
"When  your  fixing-bath  is  made  up,  add  from  thirty  to  forty  drops  of  the  blue  to  every 
forty  ounces  of  fixing-bath.  Fix  your  prints  from  twelve  to  fifteen  minutes,  and  remove  to 
a  strong  solution  of  salt  and  water.  Let  them  remain  five  minntes,  and  then  gradually  di- 
lute with  fresh  water,  so  that  the  change  of  temperature  will  not  be  so  sudden,  and  you  will 
never  be  troubled  with  blisters,  and  will  always  have  pure  whites.  I  have  this  from  Mr.  J. 
R.  demons. — FRANK  THOMAS. 

The  "aniline  blue"  process,  as  recommended  by  me,  will  be  found  very  advantageous, 
giving  to  new  prints  delicate,  pure  whites,  attainable  by  no  other  means,  and  restoring  old 
or  yellow  prints  to  their  original  purity.  Besides  improving  the  general  tone  of  every-day 
work,  it  is  of  immense  advantage  in  copying  old  or  yellow  photographs,  which  give  no  con- 
trast whatever.  Immersion  in  the  aniline  solution  restores  the  whites,  and  enables  the  pho- 
tographer to  get  a  negative  with  all  the  detail  of  the  original.  The  manner  of  using  is  as 
follows:  Dissolve  one-half  ounce  of  powdered  aniline  (known  as  "  water-blue,  letter  R,")  in 
sixteen  ounces  of  water.  This  is  the  stock-solution.  When  you  mix  your  fixing-bath,  add 
from  thirty  to  forty  drops  of  the  blue  solution  to  every  forty  ounces  of  fixing  solution.  This 
will  produce  pure  whiten,  and  will  also  prevent  blistering.  If  you  want  a  blue  tint,  or  moon- 
light effect,  take  the  print  from  the  hypo  and  immerse  in  a  saturated  solution  of  alum,  and 
the  blue  is  permanent.  If  the  color  is  too  deep  for  you,  immerse  the  print  in  a  saturated 
solution  of  borax,  and  you  may  lessen  the  tint  as  far  as  you  please. — JOHN  R.  CLEMONS. 


PRINTING    PERPLEXITIES.  223 

remedy,  which  is  to  have  a  sufficient  number  of  dishes,  keep  them  per- 
fectly clean,  and  particularly  keep  the  hands  clean. 

285.  Metallic  spots.     There  is  no  remedy  for  these.     They  are  caused 
principally  by  metallic  substances  being  ground  up  accidentally  with  the 
rags  in  the  manufacture  of  the  paper,  or  other  local  causes. 

286.  Loss  of  albumen  from  the  paper  during  silvering.     Your  solution 
is  too  weak,  or  perhaps  too  alkaline  on  account  of  an  excess  of  free  am- 
monia. 

287.  The  prints  refuse  to  tone.     This  is  often  the  fault  of  the  paper,  or 
may  be  caused  by  keeping  the  prints  too  long,  in  warm  weather,  between 
the  printing  and  the  toning,  or  by  traces  of  hyposulphite  in  your  toning 
bath,  carried  there  by  your  fingers  or  otherwise.     Many  or  all  of  these 
defects  may  be  caused,  too,  by  cold  weather  and  cold  solutions. 

288.  Mealiness.     A  great  many  blame  the  paper  itself  for  this  defect, 
but  one  seldom  finds  any  that,  with  careful  manipulation,  gives  mealy 
prints.     By  adopting  the  following  methods,  however,  one  can  produce 
them  upon  any  paper :  By  printing  from  a  very  weak  negative ;  by  float- 
ing the  paper  upon  a  very  weak  solution  of  silver ;  too  much  gold  in  the 

287.  I  believe  amateurs  generally  find  it  a  difficult  matter  to  keep  their  sensitized  paper 
white  for  a  considerable  length  of  time.  "When  I  commenced  photography,  I  was  for  some 
time  unable  to  keep  my  sensitized  paper  white.  It  became  unfit  for  printing  in  about  three 
weeks  ;  but  I  am  now  able  to  keep  it,  without  fuming  or  using  any  chemical  preparation,  for 
a  much  longer  time.  It  is  now  over  six  months  since  I  bought  the  last  lot,  and  almost  all 
of  it  is  as  white  as  when  I  first  received  it.  I  cut  it  first  into  sizes  I  use,  viz.,  carte,  quarter, 
half-plate,  etc.,  and  place  them  in  an  old  cigar-box  without  a  lid,  but  use,  instead,  two  or 
three  thicknesses  of  yellow  tissue-paper  as  a  cover.  I  then  put  the  cigar-box  into  a  dark 
cupboard,  and  when  the  sensitized  paper  becomes  too  dry  I  just  wet  the  tissue-paper  with 
clean  water.  This  can,  of  course,  be  modified. — P.  HARDWICK. 

If  the  room  becomes  chilled  before  morning,  the  first  thing  I  do  is  to  put  a  kettle  or  other 
vessel  of  water  on  the  fire  or  over  a  gas-stove,  and  while  changing  my  clothes,  filtering  the 
silver,  and  getting  ready  for  work,  the  water  will  become  quite  hot.  I  pour  this  into  the 
silvering-dish,  and  allow  the  dish  to  g->t  hot,  and  when  this  is  replaced  by  the  silver  bath  it 
will  raise  the  temperature  to  about  what  is  needed,  and  will  remain  so  long  enough  to 
silver  what  paper  is  required  for  a  day's  work  in  an  ordinary  gallery.  Where  it  is  required 
to  silver  paper  for  half  a  day  or  more,  as  in  some  galleries  where  I  have  worked,  a  very 
good  plan  I  have  found  is  to  have  a  pan  large  enough  for  the  silvering-dish  to  sit  in,  and  a 
couple  of  pieces  across  the  pan  about  one  and  a  half  or  two  inches  from  the  bottom,  for  the 
silvering-dish  to  rest  upon,  and  this  filled  with  warm  water,  which  can  be  kept  at  the  proper 
temperature,  say,  about  sixty  degrees,  with  a  small  gas-  or  coal-oil  stove.  By  this  means 
you  have  the  temperature  of  your  silver  solution  under  complete  control  all  day,  if  necessary 
— H.  A.  WEBB. 


224  WILSON'S   PHOTOGKAPHTCS. 

toning-bath ;  acidity  of  the  toning-bath ;  using  the  toning-bath  immedi- 
ately after  making  it;  and,  finally,  too  little  gold  in  the  bath.  Washing 
the  prints  too  long  before  toning  also  tends  to  make  them  mealy,  besides 
being  injurious  in  other  respects. 

289.  Although  the  great  annoyance  of  blistering  of  the  .albumen  has 
been  alluded  to  (see  Lesson  M),  another  caution  as  to  its  prevention  may  not 
be  lost  here.    Albumen-paper  manufacturers  have  been  appealed  to  in  this 
matter,  and  have  succeeded  more  largely  than  heretofore  in  remedying 
the  trouble.     It  is  most  liable  to  occur  with  doubly  albumenized  paper. 

290.  It  has  always  been  a  blot  upon  the  fair  face  of  albumen  printing, 
that  the  more  delicately  beautiful  its  products,  the  more  they  were  apt  to 
fade.     The  prime  cause  of  this  is  the  imperfect  washing  which  the  prints 
are  allowed  to  have.     This  should  be  a  matter  of  conscience  with  every 
photographer.     He  should  use  all  the  means  in  his  power  to  secure  the 
thorough  washing  of  his  prints,  and  in  no  respect  allow  any  carelessness 
on  the  part  of  his  assistants.     And  yet  it  is  indeed  difficult  sometimes 
to  eliminate  the  hyposulphite  of  soda  (the  undoubted  fading  element) 
from  the  prints,  wash  them  as  you  will.     The  operation  is  largely  helped 
by  Mr.  demons'  alum  treatment,  given  below  in  his  own  words.     It  is  so 
easy  of  application  that  it  should  not  be  overlooked  as  one  of  the  means 
of  preserving  the  fame  of  our  art. 

289.  To  prevent  albumen   blisters,  first  immerse  the   prints  in  a  freshly  prepared  and 
strong  fixing  solution,  and  then  pass  them  into  a  weaker  one.     Then  wash  the  prints  in 
a  small  quantity  of  water  first,  and  gradually  increase  the  supply  as  the  washing  progresses. 
This  treatment  will  thoroughly  prevent  the  blistering  of  albumenized  paper. — J.  L.  GIHON. 

Pour  into  a  bath  some  rectified  spirits  of  wine  and  distilled  water  in  equal  parts.  After 
the  washing  operation  which  follows  the  toning,  the  prints  are  plunged  into  this  bath,  which 
may  last  a  long  time.  The  immersion  of  five  minutes  suffices,  and  then  the  paper  will  be 
seen  to  be  more  transparent.  After  this  bath  the  prints  should  be  washed  once  only,  and 
then  fixed  and  finished  in  the  ordinary  way. — MONS.  ANDRES. 

290.  For  eliminating  the  prints  completely  of  hyposulphite  of  soda  in  from  eight  to  fifteen 
minutes,  make  a  saturated  solution  of  alum  and  water.     After  the  prints  are  fixed,  immerse 
them  in  sufficient  of  the  solution  to  cover  them  ;  let  them  remain  two  or  three  minutes,  then 
pour  off  and  throw  away  the  solution,  and  rinse  off  the  prints  one  or  two  minutes,  and 
repeat  this  operation  twice,  and  finally  rinse  the  prints  well.     The  result  will  be  the  same 
if  the  prints  are  allowed  to  remain  in  the  solution,  after  the  first  immersion  being  the  same 
as  described,  the  prints  being  rinsed  well  after  each  immersion.     No  traces  of  hyposulphite 
of  soda  will  remain  in  the  prints  after  going  through  this  process. — JOHN  K.  CLEMONS. 

If  you  use  alum,  do  not  tone  so  much,  and  use  less  gold,  as  the  alum  makes  the  prints  two 
or  three  shades  darker  than  the  gold  and  hypo  leaves  them. — A.  HESLER. 


PRINTING    PERPLEXITIES.  225 

291.  There  are  various  other  perplexities  which  will  come  up  in  the 
practice  of  photographic  printing,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  the 
abrading  or  cracking  of  the  surface  of  the  prints  after  they  are  dried— 
sometimes  called  "  woolliness;"  the  cockling  or  wrinkling  of  the  paper 
under  the  pressure-frame,  and  finally  a  very  bad  defect,  the  distortion  of 
the  image  caused  by  the  contracting  and  stretching  of  the  paper.  Good 
practical  ideas  on  all  these  are  given  in  the  notes,  to  which  be  pleased  to 
refer. 

291.  The  cause  of  cracks  or  flaws  lies  in  the  excessive  dryness  of  the  albumenized  paper 
during  the  various  photographic  operations.  With  the  exercise  of  a  little  attention  and 
practice,  it  is  possible  to  tell  whether  the  unsensitized  paper  is  inclined  to  crack.  Extraordi- 
nary brilliancy  is  generally  a  sign  of  this  weakness,  although  it  must  not  by  any  means  be 
inferred  that  all  brilliant  papers  are  open  to  this  objection.  The  first  condition  is  that  the 
paper  should  not  be  preserved  in  too  dry  a  state,  nor  allowed  to  roll  up.  Very  dry  paper, 
on  being  sensitized,  possesses,  besides,  the  disadvantage  of  repelling  the  silver  solution, 
which  hangs  upon  the  surface  of  the  paper  in  drops.  After  sensitizing,  the  paper  must  not 
be  dried  too  rapidly  nor  too  highly,  and  should  be  suspended  from  two  corners  to  prevent  its 
rolling  up,  a  precaution  also  requiring  strict  attention  when  the  pictures  are  taken  from  the 
water  after  washing.  Finally,  they  should  be  mounted  in  a  slightly  moistened  condition,  as, 
when  kept  in  rolls  in  a  dry  state,  the  defects  above  referred  to  are  easily  developed  on 
rubbing  the  paper-folder  over  the  albumenized  surface. — OSKAR  PFEIFFER. 

The  following,  if  not  one  of  the  u  wrinkles,"  is  one  way  to  avoid  them.  In  making  prints 
from  large  plates,  the  printer  is  often  troubled  by  wrinkles  or  cockles  in  the  middle  of  the 
sheet  which  no  amount  of  padding  or  pressure  in  the  frame  will  bring  in  contact  with  the 
negatives.  To  remedy  this,  after  silvering,  and  before  the  paper  is  thoroughly  dry,  fasten  the 
sheet  by  the  corners  to  the  fuming-frarnes,  or  locking  these  to  a  large  board  or  anything  that 
will  keep  it  out  straight,  and  allow  it  to  get  as  dry  as  usual.  Then  give  the  middle  of  the 
sheet  an  extra  dry  over  a  lamp  or  gas-stove,  and  the  paper,  instead  of  bagging  in  the  centre, 
will  have  all  its  wrinkles  near  the  outside,  and,  when  printing,  will  be  found  to  lie  against 
the  negative  "as  close  as  a  cat  to  a  hot  brick." — J.  L.  GIHON. 

Observe  that  the  expansion  and  contraction  are  not  equally  proportioned  to  all  dimensions 
of  the  head,  both  being  much  greater  in  proportion  to  the  breadth  of  the  face  than  to  its  length, 
so  that  either  print  is  distorted,  which  in  the  case  of  an  equal  mobility  of  the  parts  of  the 
paper  would  not  be ;  the  paper  contracts  and  expands  nearly  three  times  as  much  across  the 
narrow  way  of  the  sheet  as  in  its  length.  This  is  an  important,  constantly  present,  and,  it 
seems  to  me,  unavoidable  cause  of  photographic  distortion  Let  both  of  these  heads  be  mag- 
nified to  life  size,  in  length,  from  the  outer  right-hand  corner  of  the  mouth  to  the  inner 
corner  of  the  right  eye,  two-and-a-quarter  inches,  and  the  divergence  in  width  would  be- 
come comparatively  enormous.  Let  now  the  head  be  carefully  traced  by  the  hand,  follow- 
ing the  solar  camera  image  of  the  negative,  and  a  third  scale  of  dimensions  is  produced. 
Print  from  the  negative,  in  a  solar  camera,  with  the  length  of  the  paper  placed  across  the 
width  of  the  face,  then  another  print  with  paper  placed  with  its  length  parallel  to  the 
length  of  the  face,  and  you  have  a  fourth  and  fifth  scale  ;  under  all  conceivable  conditions 
this  cause  of  distortion  remains. — W.  J.  BAKER. 
15 


LESSON    K. 

ART    IN    PRINTING. 

292.  As  has  already  been  suggested,  there  is  a  wide  field  for  the  exer- 
cise of  artistic  taste  in  photographic  printing,  and  the  Lesson  A  is  quite 
as  deserving  of  the  study  of  the  printer  as  of  the  gentleman  who  poses 
the  model.  Indeed,  if  the  printer  is  ingenious  and  full  of  feeling  for  his 
art,  he  will  oftentimes  be  able  to  improve  upon  the  negatives  given  him 
to  print,  by  exercising  his  art-knowledge,  and  by  resort  to  the  many  little 
subterfuges  that  will  suggest  themselves  in  individual  cases,  and  which 
can  be  hardly  described  in  a  book.  He  should  know  that  his  results  must 
be  brilliant;  there  must  be  a  proper  contrast  of  light  and  shade,  which 
may  be  regulated  or  not,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  subject  and  the 
pose,  and  the  tone,  too,  must  be  managed  to  suit  the  character  of  the 
whole.  Again,  negatives  must  be  humored  and  "  doctored  "  and  "  im- 

292.  I  first  print  the  portrait  in  the  usual  way,  leaving  large  masses  of  pure  light,  or, 
at  any  rate,  tones,  which,  if  toned  and  fixed  at  this  stage,  would  represent  white  when 
finished.  On  removing  the  print  from  the  pressure-frame  I  fit  carefully  over  it  a  plate  of 
glass  of  the  same  size,  on  which  I  make  sundry  opaque  marks — spots  or  streaks,  as  the  case 
may  be — by  means  of  any  opaque  body,  such  as  water  color,  oil  color,  or  varnishes.  The 
exact  spot  where  this  opaque  body  has  to  be  applied,  is  ascertained  by  interposing  the  plate  of 
glass  between  the  negative  and  the  eye,  a  strong  source  of  illumination  being  behind  both,  and 
touching  out  here  and  there  those  points  and  spots  where  the  highest  light  is  wanted,  such  as  on 
the  eye,  the  ridge  or  tip  of  the  nose,  the  shirt,  breast,  etc.  When  a  glass  is  thus  prepared,  it  is 
placed  over  the  printed  and  still  sensitive  photograph,  now  removed  from  the  pressure- 
frame;  and,  the  greatest  care  having  been  taken  to  secure  perfect  registration,  the  picture  is 
exposed  to  the  light  for  a  sufficient  time  to  allow  a  decided  tint  to  be  printed  all  over,  except, 
of  course,  in  those  parts  covered  by  the  opaque  touches  on  the  plate  of  glass.  The  effect  of 
this  second  exposure  is  that  the  whole  of  the  picture  previously  printed  is  lowered  in  tone, 
with  the  exception  of  the  touches  referred  to.  Some  parts — as,  for  example,  a  touch  of  light 
on  the  eye — should  be  sharp  and  well-defined;  others  may  be  softer  and  vignetted,  so  to 
speak,  in  the  surrounding  semitone.  The  former  is  obtained  only  by  the  opaque  stopping 
being  effected  on  that  side  of  the  glass  placed  next  to  the  print.  Softness  of  outline,  on  the 
contrary,  will  be  obtained  by  working  on  the  side  of  the  glass  farthest  removed  from  the 
paper. — EDWIN  COCKING. 
(226) 


ART    IN    PRINTING.  227 

proved  "  and  managed  in  various  ways,  some  of  which  will  be  described, 
and  others  will  be  found  in  Mr.  Hearn's  more  elaborate  work  on  this  part 
of  our  art,  the  Practical  Printer.  "  Style  "  also  is  to  be  regarded  in  printing 
as  well  as  elsewhere. 

293.  To  print  fast  or  slow,  that  is  the  question.  On  this  subject  doc- 
tors do  not  disagree  in  theory,  but  they  do  in  practice.  Undoubtedly,  the 
slowly  printed  results  are  the  richest  and  the  best,  but  in  practising  our 
art,  one  would  never  obtain  sufficient  prints  by  any  slow  means  of  pro- 
ducing them.  Consequently,  moderately  rapid  printing  must  be  resorted 
to,  and  negatives  are  made  accordingly.  It  happens  sometimes,  however, 
that  they  are  too  weak.  Then  ground-glass,  a  varied  number  of  sheets  ot 
tissue-paper,  an  opaque  coating,  or  other  means  is  used  to  retard  the  action 
of  a  too  rapidly  printing  negative,  and  often  it  must  be  treated  in  other 
ways,  too,  to  secure  from  it  the  best  possible  results. 

293.  I  have  seen  negatives  of  that  grade  that  the  finest  prints  could  be  obtained  from  them 
if  the  light  was  diminished  by  covering  them  with  five  or  six  sheets  of  green  window  glass. 
This  shows  that  the  negatives  have  no  photographic  opacity  of  themselves,  which  must  be 
conferred  upon  them  by  a  weak  light.  Indeed,  they  possess  all  the  qualities  of  a  fine  solar 
camera  negative.  I  have  tried  to  obtain  negatives  of  a  similar  character,  and  believe  I 
have  succeeded  by  using  the  following  developer :  Mix  two  solutions,  one  of 

Water, 1  ounce. 

Nitrate  of  Baryta, 25  grains. 

The  other  of 

Water, 1  ounce. 

Protosulphate  of  Iron,      .........     45  grains. 

A  white  precipitate  (of  sulphate  of  baryta)  is  formed.  Filter  off  the  clear  solution,  and 
mix  with 

Acetic  Acid,      .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  .30  grains. 

Expose  fully,  and  apply  the  developer  until  all  details  of  the  shadows  have  appeared.  If 
the  light  was  good,  and  a  short-focus  lens  has  been  used,  no  intensification  is  necessary.  The 
negatives  were  very  ably  retouched  by  the  brush  with  carmine;  and  in  some  places  of  very 
clear  shadows  the  glass  side  of  the  negative  was  covered  with  carmine.  No  pencil  touching 
has  been  used  with  them.  I  may  here  mention  that  a  few  of  our  professional  photographers 
adopt  the  same  course  in  printing,  and  go  even  so  far  as  to  say  that  no  print  can  be  good  if 
produced  in  less  time  than  a  whole  day.  They  print  under  a  glass  roof,  and  through  rough- 
ened glass,  in  order  to  give  the  print  as  diffused  a  light  as  possible.  Strangely  enough,  the 
same  effects  are  produced  if  we  protract  the  time  used  in  printing  by  diminishing  the 
amount  of  chloride  in  the  sensitive  paper.  I  prepared  three  batches  of  albumenized  paper 
With  four,  two,  and  half  per  cent,  of  chloride.  The  highly  salted  paper  printed  in  half  the 
time  the  half  per  cent,  paper  used,  and  the  prints  were  so  different  that  it  seemed  doubtful 
whether  the  same  negative  had  been  used  for  the  two,  although  this  had  been  done.  The 
less  chloride  used  the  less  sensitive  the  paper,  and  the  more  contrast  between  light  and 


228  WILSON'S    PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

294.  Again,  the  negative  may  be  so  dense  as  to  print  not  only  slowly, 
but  to  yield  harsh  and  hard  results  impossible  to  tone  with  any  degree 
of  richness.  This  occurs  when  the  plate  has  been  undertimed,  or  too  un- 
wisely intensified.  There  are  those  who  like  "  black  and  white  "  pictures, 
but  nothing  can  be  more  disgusting  to  an  artist  with  cultivated  taste  than 
a  print  utterly  devoid  of  delicate  half-tones — coarse  and  hard  and  harsh. 
To  prevent  such,  whether  the  order  warrants  it  or  not,  for  your  own 
name's  sake,  "  doctor"  the  negative  so  it  will  have  a  chance  to  do  its  best. 

shadow.  For  what  we  call  a  negative  of  ordinary  printing  density,  a  paper  salted  with  two 
per  cent,  of  chloride  of  ammonium  is  generally  the  best. — DR.  E.  LIESEGANG. 

To  get  bold  prints  from  flat  negatives,  cut  a  piece  of  tracing-paper  about  the  size  of  the 
negative;  with  a  little  dab  of  paste  in  each  corner,  attach  it  to  the  back  of  the  negative. 
With  a  No.  2  Faber  pencil  lightly  touch  up  the  lights  on  the  paper,  softening  the  strokes  by 
rubbing  with  the  ball  of  the  finger.  Great  care  must  be  used  in  doing  this  to  avoid  harsh- 
ness or  unnaturalness  in  the  lights.  Turn  the  negative  over,  and  by  looking  through  you 
can  decide  whether  there  is  enough  or  too  much  lead  on  the  paper;  in  the  latter  case,  re- 
move the  surplus  with  a  common  pencil-rubber ;  cut  this  to  a  sharp  point,  and  you  can  ob- 
tain the  utmost  accuracy  and  gradations  in  your  retouching  on  the  paper.  A  negative  thus 
doctored  should  be  printed  under  ground-glass  ;  and  thus  a  soft,  bold  print  can  be  obtained 
from  a  weak,  flat  negative.  Care,  practice,  and  judgment  are  the  chief  necessaries  to  obtain 
success  in  this  manner  of  manipulation. — JOHN  L.  GIHON. 

294.  The  method  I  adopt  to  conquer  all  the  difficulties  is  this  :  eschewing  retouching  with 
brush  or  pencil  on  the  film,  risking  the  further  deterioration  of  the  negative,  I  make  light 
finish  the  task  it  has,  from  want  of  time  or  bad  quality,  insufficiently  done,  and  in  such  a 
manner  that  no  hand  can  hope  to  rival  its  delicacy  and  precision,  and  this  is  the  only  plan 
that  a  lover  of  his  calling  can  justifiably  pursue.  A  cliche  produced  under  the  conditions 
before  made  will  present  the  high-lights  of  the  face,  the  light  parts  of  the  costume,  white 
lace,  white  lace  collars,  sleeves,  etc.,  in  violent  contrast  with  the  darkly  shadowed  parts  of 
the  face,  under  the  eyebrows,  under  the  chin,  portions  of  the  hair,  dress,  and  accessories.  I 
take  the  negative  and  place  in  contact  with  the  collodion  film  a  sheet  of  thin,  yellow-colored 
tracing-paper  the  size  of  the  plate.  This  I  rest  against  the  glass  square  of  the  window,  so 
as  to  cause  the  light  to  traverse  the  two.  I  then  sketch  with  a  pencil  the  outline  of  all  those 
parts  which  are  too  strongly  intensified  on  the  negative  and  require  tinting.  I  then  remove 
the  tracing-paper  and  cut  out  with  the  fine  point  of  a  knife  the  pencilled  parts  correspond- 
ing to  the  dark  parts  of  the  cliche  ;  and  I  lay  down  in  the  printing-frame  this  tracing,  which 
may  be  called  the  tinting-paper,  and  cover  it  with  a  sheet  of  sensitized  paper,  and  expose  to 
diffused  light.  It  is  here  that  the  judgment  of  the  printer  is  brought  into  operation,  for 
some  of  the  apertures  will  require  more  or  less  exposure  to  rectify  the  defects  of  the  nega- 
tive, and  which  should  be  covered  up  with  any  non-actinic  substance  until  the  whole  of  the 
uncovered  portions  of  the  sensitive  paper  have  acquired  the  necessary  tint,  the  yellow-colored 
tracing-paper  preserving  the  rest  from  the  action  of  light.  Some  of  the  outlines  of  the 
tinted  portions  may  be  lightly  pencilled  on  the  back,  to  facilitate  the  adjustment  of  the  sen- 
sitive paper  to  the  negative  in  the  printing-frame,  the  shutters  of  which  are  then  closed,  and 
the  whole  is  exposed  to  the  light  until  the  print  has  acquired  the  necessary  force,  when  it 


ART    IN    PRINTING.  „  229 

295.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  much  may  be  done  to  modify  the  nature 
of  a  negative.  It.  may  be  still  more  elaborately  changed,  and  additions 
made  to  it  by  the  use  of  the  pencil  and  various  other  means.  A  patent 
has  been  obtained  for  a  process  which  consists  in  holding  the  plate  over 
a  gas  flame  or  lamp  until  it  is  fairly  smoked,  and  then  with  the  stump 
and  brush  working  up  such  additions  and  alterations  as  are  wished  for 
in  the  way  of  backgrounds  and  accessories.  An  artist  may  produce  very 
tasteful  results  in  this  way,  but  it  has  caused  some  very  evil  effects  to  be 
offered  to  the  public. 

will  be  found  that  the  tinted  parts  have  now  all  the  details  of  the  photographic  image  in  a 
most  surprising  manner,  not  otherwise  obtained.  It  is  as  if  those  parts  previously  exposed  had 
been  rendered  more  sensible  from  some  contaminating  action  ;  there  are  no  lines  nor  over- 
lapping, but  the  image  is  beautifully  modelled,  and  the  first  tinting  disappears  in  the  pro- 
duction of  a  complete  picture,  the  agreeable  result  invariably  obtained  when  the  operation 
has  been  carefully  executed  by  any  person  worthy  of  the  name  of  a  photographic  artist. — 
ADAM  SALOMON. 

Here  is  a  hint  for  producing  improved  effects  in  portraits  or  landscapes,  and  no  patent  for 
it.  I  hope  it  will  not  be  cast  away  because  it  is  cheap.  Place  a  piece  of  glass  on  the  collodion 
side  of  the  negative,  and,  looking  through  the  two,  you  will  see  what  effect  is  wanted,  and 
where.  With  sepia,  Indian-ink,  or  any  water  color,  paint  upon  the  plain  glass  the  effect 
you  wish  it  to  be  upon  the  finished  print — say  clouds,  or  anything  that  is  pleasing.  This  is 
all  supposing  the  negative  to  be  taken  with  a  white  background,  or  masked.  Then  take  a 
piece  of  sensitive  paper  fine  in  texture  by  a  transmitted  light,  and  print  that  which  you 
have  painted  upon  the  glass ;  you  may  darken  the  centre  where  the  portrait  falls  in  a  vignette 
form,  if  you  wish  it,  so  that  no  mask  will  be  required.  When  this  print  is  fixed,  wax  it,  and 
then  use  it  to  print  in  the  effect  in  the  print  after  the  portrait  is  printed.  This  prepared  nega- 
tive, I  will  now  call  it,  on  paper,  will  do  for  any  number  of  varied  portraits. — JOHX  EASTHAM. 

295.  The  practice  of  touching  up  negatives  on  the  back  has  long  been  resorted  to  with 
more  or  less  success  by  photographers,  and  when  skilfully  applied  is  of  great  value  as  a 
means  of  enhancing  the  effect  of  their  work.  The  method  generally  adopted  for  the  purpose 
of  producing  a  surface  adapted  to  receive  the  lead-pencil  or  other  material  employed,  is  to 
cover  the  back,  or  a  portion  thereof,  with  tracing  or  other  thin  paper;  but  it  is  open  to  the 
objection  that,  unless  the  back  be  covered  entirely,  and  the  progress  of  the  printing  necessarily 
impeded,  a  line  is  produced  wherever  the  material  is  brought  to  an  edge.  In  the  plan  I  am 
now  about  to  describe  this  disadvantage  does  not  obtain,  as  the  edge  of  the  retouching  surface 
may  be  softened  off  to  any  desired  extent.  The  process  is  as  follows:  Place  the  negative  to 
be  operated  upon  face  down  on  a  pad  of  blotting-paper,  and  distribute  a  small  quantity  of 
emery  powder  and  a  few  drops  of  water  over  the  portion  you  wish  to  modify ;  then  with  a 
piece  of  glass  (I  use  a  cube  of  about  an  inch  and  a  half)  grind  the  back  with  a  circular 
motion.  This,  when  sufficiently  done,  will  give  a  grain  of  about  the  same  quality  as  that  of 
an  ordinary  focussing-screen,  and  one  eminently  adapted  for  working  upon  with  black-lead 
pencils.  Clouds  may  be  put  in  by  an  artist  very  effectively  with  a  blunt  piece  of  black-lead 
on  the  back  of  landscape  negatives,  the  lights  being  heightened  with  Indian-ink.  Of  course 


230 


WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 


FIG.  68. 


296.  Photographic  prints  as  a  usual  thing  are  divided  into  two  styles — 
the  "plain''  and  the  "vignetted."  The  former  are  such  as  are  printed 
from  the  negative  without  masking  or  obscuration  of  any  kind,  and  the 
latter  are  such  as  are  tastefully  blended  off  from  the  darkness  of  the 
figure  towards  the  outer  margins.  To  accomplish  this  last  effect  a  great 
many  devices  are  used,  the  simplest  and  best  of  which  are  known  as 
"Waymouth's  Vignette  Papers.  They  are  lithographic  designs  very  care- 
fully gradated,  printed  on  superior  tissue-paper,  and  placed  over  the 
negative  at  a  short  distance  therefrom,  during  exposure  to  the  sun.  Sev- 
eral devices  have  been  in- 
vented and  suggested  for 
adjusting  these  vignette 
papers  to  the  negative, 
the  best  of  which  seems 
to  be  the  invention  of 
Mr.  J.  F.  Singhi.  The 
drawing  annexed  shows 
his  device  in  use.  A  is 
the  printing-frame  sup- 
posed to  contain  a  nega- 
tive ;  over  the  face  of  it 
a  light,  close-fitting  box, 

about  one  inch  deep,  is  fastened  and  held  in  place  by  the  gum-elastic 
bands,  B  B.  At  each  end  of  the  box  strips  are  fastened,  forming  slots  in 

the  result  will  entirely  depend  on  the  amount  of  artistic  skill  brought  to  bear  on  the  operation  ; 
but  by  the  judicious  use  of  pencil,  brush,  and  stuinp,  very  fine  effects  in  the  way  of  clouds 
may  be  produced.  It  will  sometimes  happen  in  an  otherwise  perfect  negative  that,  owing  to 
the  falling  off  of  light  towards  the  edges,  the  picture  will  print  with  dark  corners,  or  one  side 
may  be  wanting  in  density  from  inequality  of  the  film  of  collodion.  In  such  cases,  by  the 
above  process  of  grinding  as  far  as  necessary  into  the  picture,  and  then  rubbing  in  black-lead, 
the  natural  effect  will  be  rendered  with  much  greater  perfection  and  delicacy.  When  the 
work  is  completed,  if  it  be  thought  desirable,  the  whole  may  be  varnished  with  negative 
varnish  applied  in  the  ordinary  manner;  it  will  thus  be  fixed,  and  the  untouched  part  will 
be  restored,  or  very  nearly  so,  to  its  original  transparency.  I  should  add  that  for  this  process 
it  is  necessary  that  the  negative  should  be  taken  on  patent  plate  glass,  and,  writing  from  my 
own  experience,  I  would  earnestly  recommend  photographers  to  use  none  other  for  all  good 
work. — WILLIAM  BEDFORD. 

296.  When  I  have  a  negative  which  prints  too  dark  for  a  nice  vignette,  I  treat  it  in  the 
following  manner:  Varnish  the  glass  side  with  Hance's  Ground-Glass  Substitute;  then,  with 
a  dusting-brush,  dipped  in  plumbago,  proceed  to  work  on  sufficient  to  get  the  required  inten- 


ART    IN    PRINTING.  231 

which  the  slide,  c  H,  freely  moves  from  right  to  left,  c  H  is  also  provided 
with  strips,  forming  a  second  series  of  slots  in  which  the  next  slide,  E,  freely 
moves  in  and  out.  Over  E  is  a  third  series  of  slots,  in  which  the  slide, 
D,  moves,  provided  with  an  opening,  G,  of  any  desired  size  or  shape,  over 
which  opening  the  Waymouth  Vignette  Paper,  F,  is  pasted,  hut  turned 
up  at  one  corner  in  order  to  show  the  opening,  G.  Now,  by  means  of 
these  slots,  it  will  he  seen  that  once  the  vignette  paper  and  negative  are 
brought  into  relation  to  each  other,  and  held  up  to  the  light,  the  arrange- 
ment of  slots  and  slides  permits  the  nicest  and  speediest  adjustments  to 
be  made,  when  the  printing  may  be  proceeded  with.  As  the  attachment 
fits  the  printing-frame  by  friction,  it  is  raised  and  lowered  to  the  right  dis- 
tance required  between  the  negative  and  the  vignette  paper  by  means 
of  wooden  strips  inserted  at  each  end,  and  tapered  to  suit.  The  arrange- 
ment is  very  complete,  and  its  results  are  all  one  could  desire.  The 
vignette  printer  will  remember  that  the  farther  the  vignette  is  away 
from  the  negative,  the  more  gradual  will  the  gradation  be,  as  well  as 
softer  and  wider  in  effect.  Used  with  taste,  this  device  renders  artistic 
vignette-printing  a  matter  of  easy  accomplishment.  Negatives  which  are 
to  be  printed  for  vignettes  should  be  made  with  a  light  background,  and 
never  intensified. 

297.  There  is  still  another  style  which  is  very  pretty,  known  as  the 

sity,  being  careful  not  to  get  any  upon  the  figure  ;  then,  with  a  soft  pencil,  work  up  to  the 
figure,  making  an  even  coating.  This  might  be  taken  advantage  of  to  work  in  clouded 
grounds  if  the  operator  be  skilful.  I  have  often  made  clouds  in  stereo-negatives  by  use  of 
the  pencil  on  the  ground-glass  substitute ;  I  also  use  it  much  in  copies  to  strengthen 
high-lights.  In  fact,  I  could  not  keep  house  without  this  valuable  substitute.  .  .  -  One  more 
hint  about  using  Hance's  Ground-Glass  Substitute.  Should  it,  in  flowing,  have  a  tendency  to 
run  over  the  edge  and  get  upon  the  varnished  side,  go  around  the  negative,  before  flowing, 
with  a  piece  of  beeswax.  -It  will  prevent  the  evil. — IRVING  SAUNDERS. 

If  they  are  to  be  judiciously  used,  it  is  necessary  the  Way  mouth  vignette  should  be  re- 
moved from  the  negative  all  of  the  way  from  one-half  to  one  and  a  half  inches,  depending 
somewhat  upon  the  negative  and  the  degree  of  softness  desired  to  be  obtained.  The  frame 
is  built  up  with  strips  of  backboard,  and  the  vignette  paper  fitted  to  the  negative  through 
transmitted  light,  and  then  it  is  tacked  in  its  proper  place.  They  are  easily  adjusted,  and 
have  the  advantage  of  being  already  made,  thus  saving  the  time  of  the  printer  in  cutting 
this  and  that  size  form  out  of  card-board,  which,  when  done,  caused  not  only  a  waste  of  time, 
but  also,  except,  perhaps,  in  very  rare  cases,  is  not  nearly  as  good. — CHARLES  W.  HEARN. 

297.  In  printing  the  medallion  style,  now  so  very  popular,  nothing  can  be  more  simple 
than  the  plan  adopted  at  my  establishment.  A  piece  of  silvered  paper  (or  a  worthless  print 
before  washing  will  do)  is  exposed  to  the  sun  until  it  is  fully  blackened.  This  is  laid  upon 
a  piece  of  glass,  and  a  brass  mat,  the  size  and  shape  you  desire,  put  over  it,  and,  by  means 


232  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

"  Medallion''  or  oval.  To  secure  prints  by  this  method,  Gihon's  "Cut-Outs" 
are  used,  which  consist,  first,  of  a  mask  of  any  form,  but  generally  with 
an  oval  opening  in  the  centre,  which  is  placed  over  the  negative  margin 
or  border  during  the  printing  of  the  figure ;  then  the  figure  is  covered 
over  with  a  piece  corresponding  to  the  oval  cut-out,  and  the  border  of 
the  print  is  "  flashed  "  in  the  sun,  more  or  less  according  to  taste.  There 
should  always  be  a  contrast  between  the  figure  part  and  the  border,  the 
latter  being  much  the  lighter  of  the  two. 

298.  Like  human  beings,  again,  negatives  u  wear  out"  from  much  use. 
If  the  film  becomes  torn,  it  is  easily  remedied  by  the  application  of  a  spot 

of  a  sharp  knife,  the  oval  is  cut  neatly  out,  care  being  taken  to  preserve  the  piece  cut  out. 
This  latter  is  stuck  permanently  in  the  centre  of  a  suitable  sized  glass.  The  opening  is  now 
laid  over  the  negative,  on  the  varnished  side,  of  course.  The  print  is  made  as  usual.  Ee- 
move  it  from  the  printing-frame,  and  cover  the  printed  oval  thus  made  with  the  glass  con- 
taining the  cut  out  piece,  when  you  may  now  expose  and  tint  to  any  desired  degree.  If  you 
wish  to  have  a  fine  line  border,  all  you  have  to  do  is  to  shift  the  piece  about  one-thirty  sec- 
ond to  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch,  in  any  direction,  whilst  laying  it  over  the  printed  oval, 
which,  by  thus  covering  an  edge  of  the  white  paper  alongside  the  oval,  preserves  the  paper 
still  white  during  the  tinting. — WILLIAM  KURTZ. 

298.  No  matter  how  much  care  is  used,  it  frequently  happens,  in  the  printing  of  a  large 
number  of  copies  from  single  negatives,  that  specks  of  dust  or  dirt  will  inadvertently  settle  be- 
tween the  sensitive  paper  and  the  plate.  They  leave  white  marks,  which  do  not  sufficiently 
mar  the  print  as  to  make  it  worthless,  but  which  become  in  a  measure  eyesores  to  the  critical 
purchaser.  They  have  to  be  made  of  the  same  color  or  rather  tint  of  the  surrounding  parts. 
A  dab  of  Indian-ink,  jabbed  upon  the  offending  spot,  does  not  answer  the  purpose  at  all.  As 
much  judgment  has  to  be  used  as  is  exercised  by  the  lady  who  trots  from  store  to  store  upon  a 
shopping  excursion,  and  expends  hours  in  the  matching  of  the  hue  of  a  dress  pattern  or  a  set 
of  ribbons.  If  you  cannot  touch  on  the  spots  neatly,  you  had  better  allow  them  to  remain. 
On  numberless  occasions  I  have  seen  prints  from  what  were  supposed  to  be  good  negatives, 
that  might  readily  have  passed  for  maps  of  the  heavenly  constellations.  They  were  filled 
with  white  spots,  crescents,  and  lines.  I  have  frequently  asked  the  privilege  of  inspecting  the 
plates  from  which  they  were  made.  In  most  instances  the  printer  had  endeavored  to  con- 
ceal small  pinholes  or  light  scratches  with  that  very  useful  paint  of  my  manufacture  (Opaque), 
and  instead  of  having  a  scarcely  discernible  dark  speck  on  his  paper,  caused  the  appearance 
of  a  white  blot,  somewhat  difficult  to  eradicate.  To  remove  these  transparent  imperfections 
upon  the  negative,  you  must  possess  a  sharp  eye,  a  steady  hand,  a  fine  brush  (Opaque,  of 
course),  and  a  clear  comprehension  of  what  you  are  doing.  Almost  invariably,  when  I  have 
washed  away  the  color  that  had  been  applied,  I  have  found  that  at  least  three  times  the 
necessary  quantity  had  been  used. — JOHN  L.  GIHON. 

For  several  years  I  have  made  a  practice  of  subjecting  my  negatives  to  an  operation  which 
has  had  the  effect  of  preserving  them  in  good  condition  ;  thus  I  have  some  ten  years  old, 
from  which  several  hundreds  of  prints  have  been  taken,  and  all  of  them  possessed  of  the 
same  degree  of  clearness  and  beauty.  My  manner  of  working  is  as  follows:  The  negative, 


ART    IN    PRINTING.  233 

of  thatindispensable  obscurer  of  light  in  the  wrongplace,Gihon's"Opaque." 
If  the  varnish  becomes  generally  demoralized,  then  more  elaborate  treat- 
ment must  be  resorted  to.  The  varnished  film  may  be  removed  and  the 
negative  revarnished  without  great  risk,  but  it  is  a  delicate  operation  and 
should  be  managed  with  the  utmost  care. 

finished  and  well  washed  (no  trace  of  hyposulphite  being  allowed  to  remain  in  the  film),  is 
coated  with  the  under-mentioned  solution: 

Water, 30  cubic  centimeters. 

White  of  egg, 30      " 

Well  shaken,  and,  when  subsided,  filtered. 

The  negative  is  allowed  to  dry  spontaneously.  Attention  must  be  paid  to  the  proportions 
of  water  and  albumen  employed,  for  if  the  latter  is  in  excess,  the  film  of  collodion,  when 
dry,  has  a  tendency  to  peel  off,  especially  if  the  same  has  been  much  worked  during  develop- 
ment. The  albumen  having  dried,  the  negative  is  plunged  into  a  fifteen  per  cent,  solution  of 
silver,  the  silver  bath  used  for  sensitizing  being  employed  for  the  purpose,  if  necessary.  The 
plate  remains  in  the  silver  solution  for  a  period  of  thirty  or  forty  seconds, — sufficiently  long, 
indeed,  to  coagulate  the  albumen, — and  is  then  removed  and  passed  into  a  bath  of  concen- 
trated hyposulphite  of  soda.  It  is  then  again  washed,  dried  and  varnished  at  a  gentle  heat 
with  a  solution  of 

Benzoin,          .........       5  grammes. 

Alcohol,  rectified, 100         " 

When  this  coating  of  varnish  has  become  worn  out,  it  is  removed  by  immersion  in  a  bath 
of  alcohol  of  the  same  strength  as  above,  the  negative  washed,  if  necessary,  and  again 
varnished ;  it  is  thus  again  restored  to  its  pristine  beauty. — M.  CLEMENT  SANS. 

If  a  negative  has  been  printed  in  the  direct  sunlight,  and  has  consequently  had  its 
varnished  surface  injured,  by  placing  it  on  the  developing-stand,  carefully  levelled,  and 
allowing  chloroform  to  remain  upon  it  a  few  minutes,  the  injured  surface  will  be  dissolved, 
and  it  can  be  revarnished  when  dry.  Observe  that  a  few  hours  should  be  allowed  to  elapse 
before  printing  from  the  newly  varnished  negative,  or  it  may  probably  suffer  by  adhesion 
to  the  paper. — LAKE  PRICE. 

For  removing  stains  from  old  negatives,  dip  a  tuft  of  cotton-wool  into  the  hypo  fixing- 
solution,  which  has  been  used  for  the  prints  the  day  before.  (Strength  should  be  about  five 
ounces  of  hypo  to  a  pint  of  water.)  Work  with  gentle  friction  upon  the  damaged  part,  and 
after  a  few  minutes  the  negative  will  be  able  to  discharge  its  printing  functions  with  all  its 
former  power.  After  the  treatment,  wash  the  plate  carefully  with  plenty  of  water,  and  dry 
with  blotting-paper  first  and  a  soft  linen  cloth  afterwards,  finishing  with  a  little  gentle  heat 
from  the  fire. — JOHN  L.  GIHON. 


LESSON"  S. 

MOUNTING    AND    FINISHING. 

299.  AFTER  all,  the  operator  and  the  printer  are  at  the  mercy  of  the 
mounter  and  the  finisher,  unless  that  person  also  puts  heart  in  the  work, 
and  labors  with  the  rest  to  produce  beautifully  finished  results.  Neat  and 
good  cards  should  be  used ;  the  trimming  and  cutting  should  be  thought- 
fully done,  so  that  the  figure  will  appear  in  proper  position  upon  the  card 
— neither  too  high,  too  low,  too  far  back  or  too  far  forward  or  crooked ; 
the  prints  should  be  placed  so  that  the  margin  at  top  and  sides  of  the 
card  are  equal,  and  smoothly  and  thoroughly  pasted  all  over.  Starch 

299.  A  good  photograph  badly  mounted  is  like  a  jewel  ill-set,  and  a  great  part  of  its 
beauty  is  lost.  No  artist  should  be  indifferent  to  the  manner  and  style  in  which  his  work  is 
shown  to  the  public.  Nothing  fanciful  should  be  allowed  in  the  mounting  of  a  carte-de- 
visite.  The  card  should  be  plain,  either  white,  or,  what  is  perhaps  better,  a  very  light  buff 
or  cream  color;  the  margin  should  not  be  wider  than  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch,  with  a 
quarter  or  five-sixteenths  of  an  inch  at  the  bottom,  upon  which  it  is  allowable  for  the  pho- 
tographer to  print  his  name,  very  faintly,  in  black  or  brown  ink ;  but  to  print  the  name 
large,  or  in  red,  staring  letters,  not  only  shows  bad  taste,  but  detracts  from  the  effect  of  the 
picture.  Printed  lines  round  the  edge  of  the  card  are  wrong,  so  are  round  corners,  but 
when  the  lines  and  round  corners  are  combined,  as  I  have  seen  them  in  some  American 
cartes,  they  appear  to  have  entered  into  a  conspiracy  to  spoil  the  picture,  and  generally 
succeed,  however  good  it  may  be.  I  hold  it  to  be  as  necessary  to  have  the  photographer's 
name  on  the  back  of  the  card — always  supposing  the  picture  is  not  a  copy — as  it  is  to  have  a 
picture  on  the  front ;  but  the  name  must  not  be  set  forth  in  a  glaring  design,  full  of  curly- 
cues  and  flourishes,  but  in  a  modest  and  quiet  fashion  ;  not  as  though  you  were  ashamed  of 
it,  but  without  any  advertising  dash.  A  thin  card  is  better  than  a  thick  one  ;  it  feels  better 
if  well  rolled,  and  does  not  fill  up  the  book  so  much  as  a  thick  one  would.  To  cabinet 
pictures  the  same  general  rules  will  apply,  except  that  the  margins  should  be  proportionately 
wider. — H.  P.  KOBINSON. 

The  material  I  am  about  to  describe  for  paste,  has  advantages  which  no  others  possess. 
Take 

Best  Bermuda  Arrow-root,        ........       If  ounces. 

Sheet  Gelatin,  or  best  Russian  Glue, 80  grains. 

Put  the  arrow-root  into  a  small  pan,  add  one  ounce  of  water,  and  mix  it  thoroughly  up  with 
a  spoon,  or  the  ordinary  mounting-brush,  until  it  is  like  a  thick  cream,  then  add  fourteen 
ounces  of  water  and  the  gelatin  broken  into  small  fragments.  Boil  for  four  or  five  minutes, 
set  it  aside  until  partially  cold,  then  add  one  ounce  of  methylated  spirit  and  six  drops  of 
(234) 


MOUNTING    AND    FINISHING.  235 

paste  is  the  cleanest  and  the  best.  It  is  simply  good  laundry  starch,  mixed 
with  clean  water,  and  used  cold.  Pour  cold  water  upon  the  starch  to 
barely  moisten  it.  Then  stir  in  boiling  water  until  the  proper  consistency 
is  reached.  Strain,  if  not  free  from  lumps.  The  prints  are  best  mounted 
damp,  being  laid  in  a  pile  backs  up,  and  pasted  one  after  the  other  as  wanted. 
300.  After  mounting,  the  prints  are  to  be  "spotted,"  i.e.9  all  light  spots 
removed  by  the  use  of  a  camel's-hair  pencil  tipped  with  Indian-ink  or 
color.  This  should  be  carefully  and  neatly  done,  and  the  work  hidden  as 
much  as  possible.  The  pictures  should  then  be  rolled  in  a  press  and 
polished  with  encaustic  paste. 

pure  carbolic  acid.  Be  very  particular  in  adding  the  spirit  in  a  gentle  stream,  stirring 
rapidly  all  the  time.  You  have  now  fifteen  ounces  of  the  best  mounting  material  you  have 
ever  used.  Keep  it  in  a  corked  stock  bottle,  and  take  out  as  much  as  may  be  required  for 
the  time  ;  work  it  up  nicely  with  the  brush,  and  you  will  have  a  material  as  smooth  as 
cream,  without  lumps  or  grit,  and  which  will  not  decompose. — J.  G.  TUNNY. 

After  many  failures  in  mounting  prints  on  toned  card-board,  the  following  means  of  over- 
coming the  greasiness  of  the  surface  was  discovered.  It  is  done  by  adding  to  every 
hundred  grammes  of  paste  five  grammes  of  ammonia ;  this  hurts  neither  the  paste  nor  the 
pictures.  The  grease  of  the  mount  is  slightly  dissolved,  and  the  picture  adheres  closely  to 
the  board.  The  volatile  alkali  evaporates  very  quickly.  The  ammonia  used  for  this 
purpose  must  be  perfectly  pure,  and  free  from  any  trace  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen. — 
JOHN  L.  GIHON. 

300.  For  "touching  out"  plain  photographic  work,  I  advise  you  to  have  by  your  side  a 
palette,  upon  which  are  ground  moderate  portions  of  a  good  black  Indian-ink,  warm  sepia, 
and  scarlet  lake.  With  combinations  of  these  you  can  readily  imitate  the  photography  upon 
which  you  are  working,  whether  it  be  cold  or  warm  in  tone.  Of  course,  it  is  necessary  to 
apply  these  tints  with  a  brush,  and  if  you  use  plain  water  as  a  dilutant,  you  will  leave  a  dead 
surface  that  betrays  your  trail.  Every  one  will  exclaim :  Why  not  then  use  gum  water  ?  That 
will  leave  a  gloss.  Perfectly  right!  but  it  leaves  too  much  gloss.  In  addition,  I  don't 
believe  that  the  half  of  you  know  how  to  make  gum  water.  Accept  my  formula,  and  adopt 
it  or  not,  as  you  see  fit. 

Picked  Gum  Arabic,       .........       1  ounce. 

Loaf  Sugar, 1  drachui. 

Acetic  Acid,    ...........     39  minims. 

Alcohol, 30       " 

Water  in  sufficient  quantity,  say,  from  six  to  eight  ounces. 

Don't  be  frightened  at  the  mention  of  the  acid,  and  at  the  idea  of  putting  a  modicum  of  it 
upon  the  surface  of  your  photograph.  Used  in  this  way,  it  will  not,  I  assure  you,  prove 
destructive  in  the  slightest  degree.  The  gum  water,  however,  I  do  not  use  for  the  indicated 
purpose.  There  is  a  better  vehicle — the  much-abused,  always  useful,  albumen. 

The  value  of  an  encaustic  paste  in  giving  depth,  richness,  and  transparency  to  the  shadows 
of  a  photograph,  and  in  bringing  out  the  delicate  gradations  in  the  whites,  is  now  so  well 
known  that  it  needs  scarcely  to  be  stated ;  and  it  is  tolerably  clear,  also,  that  it  adds  to  the 


236  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

301.  Or  some  may  prefer  a  higher  polish,  when  the  final  operation  is 
to  pass  our  beautiful  new  pictures  through  the  now  popular  heated 
burnisher,  which  imparts  to  them  a  high  degree  of  polish  and  improves 
their  tone.  If  this  latter  is  used,  the  prints  must  first  be  lubricated  with 
a  mixture  of  white  Castile  soap  and  alcohol,  or  a  similar  "  lubricator." 
After  either  treatment,  the  prints  are  ready  for  the  acceptance  of  your 

permanency  of  the  prints.  My  prints  owe  much  of  richness  and  depth  to  treatment  with  an 
excellent  preparation  of  this  kind,  the  formula  of  which  stands  as  follows : 

Pure  Virgin  Wax,  ..........  500  grammes. 

Gum  Elerni, 10         " 

Benzole, 200         " 

Essence  of  Lavender, 300         " 

Oil  of  Spike, .         .         .         .         .15 

Those  who  wish  to  try  a  small  sample  can  substitute  grains  for  grammes.  Melt  the  whole 
on  a  water-bath,  mix  thoroughly,  and  strain  through  muslin.  A  simpler  plan  will  be  to 
dissolve  the  elemi  in  the  solvents,  as  described  above,  and,  after  filtering,  mix  with  the  melted 
wax,  as  the  filtration,  which  is  chiefly  intended  for  the  gum  elemi,  is  more  easily  managed 
before  the  wax  is  present.  This,  when  finished,  forms  a  stiff  paste.  By  increasing  the 
proportion  of  essence  of  lavender  it  can  be  made  thinner,  which  in  winter  may  be  desirable. 
The  encaustic  paste  is  put  on  the  print  in  patches  in  three  or  four  parts,  and  then  rubbed, 
with  a  light  quick  motion,  with  a  piece  of  clean  flannel,  until  a  firm,  fine  surface  is  obtained. 
If  a  rich,  thick  coating  of  the  encaustic  be  desired,  a  very  light  pressure  in  rubbing  is 
necessary,  so  that  a  polish  may  be  acquired  without  rubbing  off  the  paste  in  the  operation. 
If  a  print  be  retouched,  more  especial  care  is  required  to  use  a  light  hand  in  applying  the 
encaustic  paste. — ADAM  SALOMON. 

301.  First,  after  prints  are  dry,  spot  out,  and  before  burnishing,  rub  them  briskly  with  a 
cotton-flannel  patch  saturated  with  either  white  for  common  yellow  wax,  it  matters  not. 
After  the  wax  is  applied  to  the  patch,  let  it  get  cold  or  nearly  so ;  cold  enough  not  to  stick 
to  the  print,  and  warm  enough  to  be  pliable.  Begin  rubbing  lightly  until  the  wax  and 
patch  get  a  nice  polish.  If  any  bits  should  get  stuck  to  the  print,  they  can  be  readily 
rubbed  off  with  a  clean  patch.  This,  properly  applied,  I  find  preferable  to  any  other;  it  fills 
the  grain  of  the  paper,  and  does  not  remove  the  spotting,  and  the  prints  will  bear  handling 
without  injury.  Second,  keep  the  burnisher  well  polished.  Take  a  smooth  piece  of  pine, 
about  two  and  a  half  inches  wide,  one  inch  thick,  and  thirty  inches  long  ;  on  one  side  of  this 
apply  flour  of  emery  and  kerosene;  spread  it  over  smoothly.  To  begin  with,  lay  the  pre- 
pared stick  down  face  up ;  over  this  pass  the  face  of  your  burnisher  (if  it  scratches)  until  the 
face  is  true,  and  all  scratches  removed ;  now  have  a  similar  stick,  over  one  face  of  which  is 
stretched  a  piece  of  buckskin,  similar  to  what  we  used  to  buff  Daguerrotype  plates  with; 
apply  to  this  jeweller's  rouge,  and  finish  the  polish  of  the  burnisher  with  it ;  you  have  now  a 
polish  that  can't  be  beat. — A.  HESLER. 

First,  see  that  the  picture  is  not  too  much  dried,  as  all  know  the  swell  of  the  card  when 
a  picture  is  first  mounted  bends  the  picture  backwards.  Let  the  picture  dry  until  the  con- 
traction of  the  paper  just  commences  to  bend  the  picture  forward.  It  will  be  found  that  the 
picture  in  this  stage  is  about  three-fourths  dry,  and  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  it  should 
not  be  allowed  to  dry  any  more  than  this  until  after  it  has  gone  through  the  burnisher 


MOUNTING    AND    FINISHING.  23? 

patrons.  The  neat  and  thoughtful  photographer  will  show  enterprise, 
and  deliver  his  work  in  tasteful  cases  or  envelopes,  and  allow  no  print  to 
pass  his  counter  that  will  not  do  him  credit  in  every  way,  and  serve  to 
bring  him  an  additional  patron.  He  should  feel  as  if  his  future  reputation 
depended  upon  the  pictures  being  delivered  now. 

This  is  best  done  by  piling  the  pictures  in  one  or  two  piles,  and  placing  them  under  a  weight. 
They  should  be  carefully  taken  from  this  pile  and  spotted  out,  and  immediately  placed  in 
another  pile  under  weight.  The  same  precaution  should  take  place  in  applying  the  lubricator 
to  the  print.  They  should  be  taken  to  the  burnisher  in  this  condition  and  put  through  until 
a  sufficient  polish  is  reached.  The  reason  for  this  method  of  procedure  will  be  evident  to 
any  one  who  has  observed  with  what  a  number  of  irregular  lines  the  surface  of  a  picture 
will  become  broken  when  allowed  to  become  perfectly  dry  in  the  usual  manner.  When  \hese 
checks  have  once  appeared  in  a  picture,  there  is  no  method  of  again  uniting  the  broken  sur- 
face, as  I  have  repeatedly  demonstrated  by  all  sorts  of  experiments.  When  burnished  by 
the  above  directions,  the  picture,  when  cool,  will  be  found  to  be  very  compact  and  hard,  and 
neither  alcohol  nor  water  will  destroy  the  gloss,  except  by  long  soaking.  Another  little  hint 
I  would  give  on  the  best  way  to  handle  a  picture  in  tho  burnisher.  Just  put  the  picture 
through  the  burnisher  lengthways,  curling  it  up  backwards  around  the  roller  ;  afterwards 
put  it  through  sideways,  thus  straightening  it,  and  thereby  a  much  higher  polish  will  be 
secured. — J.  H.  SCOTFORD. 

If  occasionally  a  cabinet  or  card  picture  will  not  take  the  gloss,  breathe  upon  it  freely, 
run  it  through  the  burnisher,  and  behold  the  shine.  Should  it  not  be  produced  the  first  time 
of  trying,  repeat  the  operation  after  the  picture  has  become  cool ;  the  desired  result  will 
then  be  obtained. — C.  J.  STIFF. 

About  two  years  since  I  was  very  much  troubled  with  very  fine  scratches  in  burnishing, 
different  from  those  caused  by  roughness  of  the  burnishing  tool.  Another  proof  that  the 
cause  lay  outside  of  the  burnisher,  was  that  two  or  three,  perhaps,  would  burnish  all  right, 
then  one  scratched  badly,  next  all  right,  and  so  on  through  the  lot.  I  finally  found  the 
cause  to  be  that  the  prints  were  allowed  to  get  too  dry  before  burnishing,  and  the  remedy  I 
used  was  as  follows:  After  mounting,  the  moisture  should  not  get  out  of  the  prints  before 
burnishing.  As  soon  as  the  prints  begin  to  curl  towards  the  picture,  I  pack  them  one  upon 
another.  My  first  plan  was  to  place  them  in  the  cellar  until  ready  to  spot ;  while  doing  this 
I  only  expose  one  print  at  a  time,  keeping  them  packed.  After  spotting,  lubricate  with  soap 
and  alcohol  (I  find  wax,  spermaceti,  etc.,  to  give,  in  my  experience,  a  veiled  appearance), 
and  spread  out  in  the  cellar  upon  something  clean.  I  use  a  cloth  stretched  upon  a  small 
frame,  where  they  should  remain  until  ready  to  burnish.  A  superior  burnish  will  result  if 
they  can  remain  twelve  hours  after  lubricating,  as  directed,  spread  in  the  cellar.  I  have  since 
made  another  improvement,  substituting  for  the  cellar  a  tight  tin  box,  which  I  had  made 
large  enough  to  hold  my  prints  flat.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  have  the  prints  too  damp. 
I  run  them  through,  lightly,  twice  across  the  burnishing  tool,  until  all  are  through,  then  run 
about  four  times  again,  commencing  with  the  first;  I  run  the  first  thin. — IRVING  SAUNDERS. 

I  find  the  following  to  serve  admirably  as  a  "lubricator:  "  A.  Paraffine,  eight  drachms; 
benzine,  ten  ounces.  B.  In  a  mortar  grind  gum  ammoniacum  thirty  grains,  in  alcohol  suffi- 
cient to  prevent  the  gum  from  sticking  to  the  pestle.  Add  A  and  B  together,  shake  well, 
and  apply  with  a  flannel  rag  or  sponge. — JOHN  R.  C  LEMONS. 


238 


WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 


302.  A  still  higher  polish  may  be  given  to  the  print  by  coating  it  with 
a  mixture  of  gelatin.     It  is  questionable  whether  such  a  high  degree  of 
"shine"  is  "artistic"  or  not;  and  it  is  an  absolute  certainty  that  the 
gelatin  film  turns  color  and  gives  the  prints  a  faded  appearance.     More- 
over, the  surface  is  easily  abraded. 

303.  The  trimming  of  the  photograph  should  always  be  neatly  and 
carefully  done.  The  edges  should  be  untorn,  and  the  form  or  shape  should 

FIG.  69.  be  true.     A  knife  is  often  used  with  a 

glass  or  metal  form,  but  the  little  in- 
vention of  Prof.  S.  M.  Robinson,  known 
as  his  "  trimmer,"  has  almost  displaced 
the  knife.     These  trimmers  are  made 
of  two  forms,  the   one  illustrated  by 
Figure  69  being  constructed  so  as  to 
revolve  in  a  socket,  in  order  to  make  it 
follow   accurately   an    oval    or   round- 
cornered  metal  "guide,"  and  the  one  in 
Figure  70,  known  as  the  "  straight  cut," 
is  for  trimming  straight  edges,  a  metal  guide  being  used  also  with  it,  or 
it  may  be  worked  outside  of  a  glass  shape.    The  theory  of  these  trimmers 
FlG  70  is,  that  instead  of  cutting  they  pinch  off 

the  surplus  paper,  thereby  giving  a  nice- 
ly-bevelled edge  to  the  print,  and  they 
are  far  superior  to  the  knife  or  scissor? 
if  held  and  used  as  indicated  by  the 
drawings.  The  first  named  gives  a 
small  turned  or  rounded  corner  to  the 
print,  which  causes  it  to  adhere  more 
neatly  to  the  mounting  card.  The 
"  straight  cut"  trims  the  corners  square. 
The  guides  are  made  of  sheet-iron,  and  are  cut  true  by  means  of  a  lathe. 

302.  This  way  of  mounting  photographs  may  not  be  quite  new.  The  print  for  this 
purpose  should  be  a  little  darker  than  usual,  and  fully  toned,  and  after  well  washing,  put 
between  blotting-paper  for  a  short  time,  and  when  surface  dry  floated  on  the  following 
solution  made  warm: 

Isinglass, 5  grains. 

Gum  Arabic, 1  grain. 

"Water, 1  ounce. 


MOUNTING    AND    FINISHING.  239 

304.  One  great  difficulty  in  mounting,  which  should  not  be  overlooked, 
is  the  cockling  or  distorting  of  the  card-board,  by  the  unequal  drying  out 
of  the  moisture  imparted  to  them  by  the  mountant.  A  good  preventive  is 
to  slightly  dampen  the  cards,  and  then  print  and  card  will  dry  together, 
though  still,  alas !  not  always  equally  and  in  concord.  ^N"ever  pile  the 
prints  in  close  contact  while  damp,  in  order  to  keep  them  straight.  They 
are  apt  to  become  soured,  and  spots  will  follow  to  their  ruin. 

A  gentle  heat  will  dissolve  the  isinglass  and  gum  ;  then  add  one  drachm  methylated  spirit, 
and  filter.  Float  the  damp  print  upon  this,  and  then  lay  it  carefully  on  a  plate  of  quite 
clean,  clear  glass,  say  patent  plate.  Now  press  out  the  superfluous  mixture  with  a  squeegee 
(or  a  piece  of  Indian-rubber  tubing  will  do  for  the  purpose),  beginning  at  the  centre  of  the 
print  with  a  gentle  scraping  motion  ;  then  allow  it  to  get  thoroughly  dry.  The  print  will  now 
have  all  the  brilliancy  of  prints  in  water  ;  and  much  detail  will  be  visible  that  in  the  ordinary 
way  would  not  be  seen. — THOMAS  GULLIVER. 

304.  Take  half  an  ounce  of  gelatin  and  cover  it  with  water ;  leave  it  to  soak  for,  say, 
twenty-four  hours,  in  which  time  it  will  become  thoroughly  swollen.  Now  pour  off  all  the 
superfluous  water,  except  two  or  three  drachms ;  place  the  gelatin  with  this  trace  of  water 
in  a  glue-pot,  and  put  it  on  the  fire.  When  it  is  melted,  add  six  ounces  of  alcohol;  that 
which  I  use  has  a  specific  gravity  of  .820.  A  most  important  point,  however,  is  the  mode 
of  mixture ;  the  alcohol  must  be  added  a  little  at  a  time,  stirring  steadily  with  a  glass  rod, 
and  maintaining  a  moderately  high  temperature.  By  proceeding  carefully  in  this  way,  perfect 
mixture  is  secured;  and  the  solution  is  then  poured  into  a  wide-mouth  bottle,  corked  or 
stoppered,  and  set  aside  for  use.  This,  applied  to  the  print,  causes  a  scarcely  appreciable 
degree  of  expansion,  and  no  subsequent  cockling.  Its  adhesive  qualities  are  perfect,  and  the 
preparation  keeps  well.  To  prevent  the  rigid  hardness  which  characterizes  good  gelatin, 
I  added  from  one  to  two  drachms  of  glycerin  to  the  preparation,  which  is,  I  think,  an 
improvement. 

To  mount  in  an  album  without  cockling,  let  the  photograph  be  ironed  with  a  hot  iron  on 
the  back  till  it  is  nice  and  smooth,  then  place  it  under  pressure  till  quite  flat.  A  large  book 
answers  the  purpose  admirably.  To  prepare  for  mounting,  lay  the  flattened  print  face 
downwards  on  a  smooth  board  or  piece  of  glass,  and  upon  it  place  a  piece  of  clean,  stiff 
paper  an  eighth  of  an  inch  less  all  round  than  the  photograph,  upon  the  exposed  edge  of 
which  rapidly  and  sparely  brush  some  liquid  glue  (as  little  as  possible)  to  cover  it,  for 
herein  lies  the  great  secret.  Avoid  making  the  paper  wet.  The  album  being  conveniently 
placed — the  position  the  photograph  is  to  occupy  being  previously  marked  with  a  pencil — 
carefully  raise  the  photograph  with  a  point  of  some  kind  to  avoid'  soiling  the  finger  with  the 
glued  edge,  making  it  non-adhesive  in  the  parts  where  such  glue  would  be  removed,  and  lay 
it  down  in  the  proper  place.  At  once  lay  a  piece  of  clean  paper  over  it,  and  rub  it  down 
firmly  with  a  soft  rag ;  close  the  book.  In  half  an  hour  the  face  will  be  dry,  and  the  print 
perfectly  flat,  and  it  will  remain  so. — JOHN  L.  GIHON. 


LESSON    T. 

PHOT  O  G  R  A  P  H  Y    0  U  T  S  1 1)  E. 

305.  THE  suggestions  which  follow  are  for  the  practice  of  landscape  or 
out-door  photography  especially,  though  embracing  what  is  helpful  also 
in  making  architectural  subjects,  interiors,  groups  of  persons  out  of  doors, 
and  in  fact  all  classes  of  work  outside  of  the  studio.  Landscape  photog- 
raphy, proper,  is  the  most  fascinating  and  delightful  department  of  the 
art.  Every  live  portraitist  should  have  an  outfit  for  such  work,  and  use  it 
for  recreation  and  diversion  and  practice,  if  for  nothing  else.  The  gen- 
eral rules  as  to  the  manipulation  of  the  plate,  printing,  and  finishing,  apply 
here  just  the  same  as  in  portraiture.  And,  indeed,  the  same  lenses  and 

305.  The  lenses  proper  to  employ  for  landscape  pictures  are  both  single  and  double ;  the 
first  to  be  used  when  the  subject  is  of  that  nature  that  some  size  is  required,  and  that  it  will 
not  suffer  by  a  lengthened  exposure  ;  the  best  diameters  are  two  and  a  half  and  five  inches, 
covering  respectively  eight  inches  by  six,  twelve  inches  by  ten,  and  sixteen  inches  by  twelve; 
the  aperture  to  be  used  will  be  better  reasonably  small,  if  the  subject  is  well  illuminated, 
since,  under  that  condition,  the  extreme  planes  of  distance  will  be  more  perfectly  rendered. 
The  triplet,  especially,  when  refinement  of  treatment  is  desirable  ;  Koss'  wide-angle  doublet, 
and  Dallmeyer's  wide-angle  rectilinear,  in  many  situations  where  it  is  necessary  to  take  the 
subject  at  close  quarters,  and  the  double  portrait  combination  where,  at  small  sizes,  a  favor- 
able opportunity  is  seen  for  quasi-instantaneous  treatment  of  passing  effects  of  chiaro-oscuro. 
Many  very  charming  effects  of  aerial  perspective,  marking  the  different  planes  of  distance, 
in  undulating  or  mountainous  country,  are  obtained  by  working  towards  the  sun.  This  must 
be  done  when  it  is  not  too  near  the  horizon,  as  then  the  light  would  look  directly  into  the 
lens.  Such  treatment  of  the  subject  requires  precaution  to  avoid  fogging  ;  it  is  well  to  shield 
the  lens,  whether  single  or  double,  by  a  dark  cloth,  which  can  be  held  above. — LAKE  PRICE. 

Opticians  have  been  always  ready  as  far  as  lies  in  their  power  to  meet  the  wants  of  pho- 
tographers, and  great  praise  is  due  to  them  for  the. patient  research  and  calculations  to  pro- 
duce the  splendid  instruments  now  placed  in  the  photographer's  hands  ;  still,  it  is  just  pos- 
sible that,  practically,  we  may  have  too  much  of  a  good  thing,  and  overstep  the  mark  in  our 
eager  desire  to  produce  perfection.  This  was  first  seen  in  the  early  wish  to  obtain  a  perfectly- 
sharp  focus,  if  only  in  one  plane,  but  which  has  now  given  way  to  a  desire  of  a  more  general 
and  artistic  effect  by  diffusion  of  focus  in  portraiture  over  the  whole  subject.  The  same 
thing,  in  a  different  way,  has  now  taken  place  in  consequence  of  a  great  demand  for  lenses 
giving  rectilinear  lines  with  wide-angles,  which  practically,  as  I  hope  soon  to  prove,  are  not 
(240) 


PHOTOGRAPHY    OUTSIDE.  241 

apparatus  may  be  used,  but,  as  explained  in  Lessons  B  and  C,  the  best 
results  are  obtained  outside  by  the  use  of  such  as  are  constructed  pur- 
posely for  this  class  of  work.  In  the  matter  of  lenses,  the  single,  double, 
and  triple  combinations  are  all  employed,  and,  to  one  doing  much  out- 
door work,  they  are  all  necessary. 

306.  Here  also  the  use  of  the  diaphragm  or  "  stop "  must  be  well 
thought  over  as  explained  in  Lesson  C,  and  again  the  lens  must  be  chosen 

so  good  as  those  giving  a  slight  amount  of  curvature,  as  in  the  old-fashioned  single  lenses, 
and  which  has  been  reduced  to  a  good  working  minimum  in  the  wide-angle  single  lens.  To 
show  this,  set  up  two  cameras — one  with  a  rectilinear  wide-angled,  and  the  other  with  the 
wide-angled  single  lens,  both  having  the  same  focus  and  angle.  Place  them  before  a  square 
building  occupying  the  best  part  of  the  largest  plate  the  lenses  will  cover  ;  level  the  cameras 
and  cut  off  excess  of  foreground,  and  now  examine  the  two  pictures  on  the  ground-glasses. 
The  one  with  the  rectilinear  lens  will  be  found  to  have  a  wedge-shaped  image — that  is,  the 
top  of  the  building  will  be  wider  than  the  lower  part ;  whereas  that  by  the  single  lens  will 
be  found  to  be  exactly  straight.  This  is  what  might  have  been  expected  ;  for  if  we  measure 
the  lines  from  the  centre  of  the  lens  to  the  ground-glass  opposite  to  it,  and  then  from  the 
lens  to  the  top  of  the  building,  of  course  the  latter  is  much  the  longer,  which  will  account 
for  the  enlargement  of  the  image.  The  single  lens  giving  a  barrel  image  will,  under  this 
circumstance,  give  a  perfectly  straight  one.  The  only  way  to  at  all  modify  the  picture  by 
the  rectilinear  lens  is  to  tilt  the  ground-glass  of  the  camera.  It  is  only  when  pushing  the 
lenses  to  extremes  that  this  will  occur  ;  but,  as  under  any  other  circumstances  the  curvature 
of  the  improved  single  lenses  is  practically  nothing,  photographers  will  in  general  find  them 
more  truthful  than  any  double  rectilinear  ones. — FRANCIS  G.  ELIOT. 

306.  Use  the  smallest  stop  possible  under  existing  conditions.  The  circumstance  limiting 
time  usually  is  motion  in  the  subject.  Water  in  motion,  swift-moving  clouds,  or  atmospheric 
effects,  must  be  taken  instantaneously,  or  their  chief  beauty  is  lost.  In  such  cases,  detail 
must  of  necessity  be  sacrificed.  Foliage  in  motion,  trees  swaying  in  the  breeze,  should  never 
be  attempted.  If  it  is  worth  doing  at  all,  it  is  worth  doing  well,  and  it  pays  to  wait.  Ex- 
posures on  the  quiet  landscape,  on  rock  and  mountain  scenery,  or  on  architectural  subjects, 
need  be  limited  only  by  the  necessities  of  your  process  and  the  time  at  your  disposal.  I  have 
the  Morrison,  Ross,  Zentmayer,  and  the  "  E.  A."  style  of  lenses  for  general  use,  working 
each  as  occasion  requires.  For  landscape  work,  where  straight  lines  are  not  essential,  I 
prefer  the  simplest  and  cheapest  of  all — the  single  combination.  I  have  taken  passable 
marine  views  instantaneously  with  each.  Under  other  less  favorable  conditions  and  subjects, 
I  have  secured  good  results  with  a  fifteen  minutes'  exposure;  ordinarily  the  time  given 
varies  from  ten  to  sixty  seconds. — S.  R.  STODDARD. 

A  photographer  who  owns  a  number  of  lenses  and  wants  to  determine  which  one  to  use 
for  any  particular  view,  may  do  so  when  visiting  the  spot  beforehand  without  lenses  or 
camera,  and  with  very  little  trouble.  We  only  require  to  know  what  size  of  plate  each  lens 
will  cover,  and  its  equivalent  focus.  The  method  of  determining  the  equivalent  focus  of  a 
combination  is,  in  brief,  this :  Measure  the  distance  of  the  focus  of  a  distant  object  from  any 
definite  point  on  the  mounting  of  the  lens,  and  again  from  the  same  point  with  the  lens  re- 
versed. One-half  the  sum  of  the  two  measurements  will  be  very  nearly  the  equivalent  focal 
16 


242  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

to  suit  the  subject  and  the  angle  of  view  required.  There  are  rules  for 
calculating  these,  and  they  are  useful  when  it  is  really  particular  that  a 
certain  and  given  amount  of  subject  must  be  included  in  a  view.  Gener- 
ally, a  look  into  the  camera  will  soon  satisfy  the  operator  whether  or  not 
his  picture,  as  a  whole,  is  wrhat  he  desires  to  secure. 

307.  There  are  other  methods  of  satisfying  yourself  as  to  what  amount 

length.  To  find  out  what  lens  to  use,  take  any  small  stick  or  twig  and  break  it  off  equal  to 
the  horizontal  width  of  the  plate  to  be  used,  or  the  twig  may  be  shaped  to  the  outline  of  the 
plate.  This  is  to  be  placed  upon  a  rule,  one  end  of  which  is  pressed  against  the  lower  eyelid. 
Then  move  the  twig  along  the  rule  until  its  ends  cover  the  extreme  portions  of  the  view  to 
be  taken,  and  read  off  the  number  of  inches,  distance  at  which  it  must  be  placed  from  the 
eye,  and  this  will  be  the  focal  length  of  the  lens  required.  In  case  of  having  only  one  lens 
at  disposal  and  we  wish  to  find  what  sized  plate  must  be  used  to  include  a  certain  view,  pro- 
vided it  is  in  the  capacity  of  the  lens  to  cover,  mark  off  from  one  end  of  a  stick,  by  placing 
the  thumb-nail  upon  it,  a  length  that  will  include  the  view,  at  the  same  time  holding  the 
stick  at  a  distance  from  the  eye,  measured  along  the  rule,  equal  to  the  equivalent  focal  length 
of  the  lens  to  be  used.  In  practice,  a  folding  foot-rule  in  four  parts  is  a  convenient  pocket 
size.  To  make  this  answer  for  a  focal  length,  for  instance  of  twenty  inches,  reduce  everything 
to  half-size,  calling  the  focus  ten  inches,  and  when  the  size  plate  is  found  for  a  ten-inch 
focus,  multiply  by  two  to  get  the  size  actually  required.  Again,  if,  in  case  of  stereo  views, 
you  expect  that  a  lens  of  three  or  of  two-and-a-half  inches  focus  will  be  required,  to  avoid  a 
chance  of  error  that  might  occur  from  not  being  able  to  measure  from  the  true  centre  of  the 
eye,  double  or  treble  the  length  of  the  twig  or  stem  of  grass  that  you  hold  up  to  include  the 
view,  and  you  will  then  get  accordingly  two  or  three  times  the  focal  length  to  be  determined 
with  sufficient  accuracy  for  practical  purposes. — JOHN  M.  BLAKE. 

The  following  calculations  have  been  made  to  show  what  angle  of  view  is  included  in  any 
picture  when  the  equivalent  focus  of  the  lens  by  which  it  was  taken  is  known.  When  the 
base-line  of  the  picture  measures  the  same  as  the  equivalent  focus  of  the  lens,  the  angle  of 
view  will  be  fifty-three  degrees.  If  it  measures  a  quarter  part  more  than  the  equivalent 
focus  of  the  lens,  the  angle  will  be  sixty-four  degrees.  If  it  measures  half  as  much  again  as 
the  equivalent  focus  of  the  lens,  the  angle  will  be  seventy-four  degrees.  If  three-quarter 
part  more  than  the  equivalent  focus  of  the  lens,  the  angle  will  be  eighty-two  degrees.  If 
double  the  length  of  the  equivalent  focus  of  the  lens,  the  angle  will  be  ninety  degrees. — 

T.  CUTHBERTSON. 

307.  If  the  standpoint  is  not  a  given  one,  and  it  is  desirable  to  have  more  or  less  of  the 
view  in  the  field,  alter  your  distance  from  the  object,  until  you  find  a  suitable  position  for 
placing  your  camera.  Again,  the  position,  or  distance,  and  size  of  plate  are  given,  and  you 
want  to  know  the  focal  length  of  the  lens  necessary  to  give  the  required  image:  Place 
yourself  at  the  given  standpoint;  hold  the  respective  plate-holder  before  your  eyes;  move  it 
to  and  fro  until  the  plate-holder  frames  just  what  you  want;  measure  the  distance  between 
the  plate-holder  and  your  eye;  the  distance  is  equal  to  the  focal  length  of  the  lens  required. 
Thus  you  are  enabled  to  pick  out  the  position  to  suit  your  taste  and  purpose.  Frequently, 
view  photographers  are  puzzled  about  the  problems  :  How  much  of  a  view  will  my  lens  give 
at  a  given  distance  on  a  certain  size  plate?  or,  What  distance  is  required  for  my  lens  to  give 


PHOTOGRAPHY    OUTSIDE. 


243 


FIG.  71. 


of  subject  you  may  expect  to  secure  from  any  given  standpoint.  It  is 
well  to  understand  them  all,  for  it  will  save  many  a  climb.  Inexperi- 
enced parties  have  been  known  to  expend  an  hour  or  two  in  trying  to 

so  and  so  much  of  a  view  on  a  given  size  plate?  or  further,  if  the  distance  is  given,  what  is 

the  focal  length  of  the  lens  necessary  to  accomplish  what  I  wish  ?     All  this,  and  for  the 

thinking  photographer  a  great  deal  more,  may  be  answered  by  the  following  simple  method, 

sufficiently  accurate  for  all  practical  purposes.     A  B 

is  an  object  in  a  horizontal  position;  L,  the  lens;  CD, 

the  image  on  the  ground-glass ;    E  L,  the  distance 

from  the  lens  to  the  object;    and  r  L,  the  focal 

length  of  the  ler.s.     It  is  easy  to  see,  or  at  least  to 

feel,  that  the  given  dimensions  are  in  some  relation 

to  the  proportions  of  the  triangles  ALB  and  OLD. 

Now,  suppose  you  turn  your  camera  around  the  lens 

L  until  the  ground-glass,  on  which  you  previously 

traced  the  image  with  pencil,  takes  the  position  of  GH  ;  take  off  the  lens,  and  put  your  eye 

where  the  lens  was  placed,  and  the  image  on  the  ground-glass  will  just  cover  the  object 

i  L,  then,  will  be  equal  to  r  L,  which  is  the  focal  length  FIG.  72. 

of  the  lens.     Consequently,  we  come  to  the  conclusion  : 

The  image  formed  by  a  lens  on  the  plate  is  precisely 

the  same  as  the  one  which  is  seen  by  one  eye  through 

the  plate-holder,  or  the  glass  plate  itself,  at  a  distance 

equal  to  the  focal  length  of  the  lens  from  the  same 

standpoint.     Suppose  you  have  a  twelve-inch  lens,  and 

you  want  to  take  a  view  on  a  10  x  12  plate :    Hold 

your  10x12  frame  twelve  inches  from  your  eye,  and 

all  that  which  you  see  through  the  frame  with  one 

eye  your  lens  will  produce  on  the  plate,  provided  the 

angle  of  your  lens  is  wide  enough. — J.  ZENTMAYER. 

For  further  hints  on  apparatus  and  the  lens  subject, 
refer  to  Lessons  B  and  C. 

The  annexed  drawing  represents  one  of  the  camera- 
boxes  of  the  American  Optical  Company,  known  as 
the  76  Pocket  5x8  Dry-plate.  Camera-box.  It  is  a 
model  of  lightness,  compactness,  general  excellence,  and 
perfect  workmanship.  It  is  supplied  with  one  double 
dry-plate-holder,  which  is  also  very  light.  (Of  course, 
additional  holders  may  be  had  in  any  number.)  It  has 
also  a  movable  central  piece  (to  be  inserted  when  used 
as  a  stereoscopic  camera),  a  swing-back,  a  sliding  front, 
and  an  attachment  for  using  the  camera  vertically 
when  the  horizontal  plate  is  not  suitable  for  the 
subject  in  hand.  Such  an  apparatus  as  this  can  be 
carried  in  one  hand,  and  should  accompany  every  photograph  lover  on  every  journey  he 
makes.  It  is  always  ready  for  work,  and  is  pretty  certain  in  its  results. 


1>44  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

find  a  point  of  sight  for  the  view  which  was  in  their  mind  to  take, 
While  they  were  knocking  about,  the  light  would  lose  its  snap,  the  shad- 
ows lengthen,  and  the  best  possible  opportunity  for  securing  the  view 
escape.  Open  the  mind  to  learning  and  the  voice  of  experience  always. 
308.  In  out-door  manipulation  there  are  certain  modifications  in  the 
formulae  used  which  are  essential.  Of  course  everything  works  with 
greater  rapidity  than  when  employed  in  the  glass  studio,  though  this,  too, 
is  regulated  by  the  nature  of  the  subject,  the  objective  used,  the  light,  the 
diaphragm,  and  the  time  of  day.  Hard  experience  only  can  teach  all  the 
technicalities  of  this  department;  but,  after  all,  the  learning  is  so  pleasant 

308.  So  far  as  my  experience  has  gone,  the  chemistry  of  out-door  work  does  not  differ 
materially  from  in-door  work.  I  use  precisely  the  same  material  as  I  do  in  my  gallery,  with 
such  changes  in  compounding  them  as  the  nature  of  the  object  to  be  photographed  requires. 
I  generally  use  the  simplest  developer — iron  and  acetic  acid,  and  only  enough  of  the  acid  to 
make  it  flow  evenly.  Alcohol  I  never  use  in  a  developer,  unless  driven  by  necessity,  and  I 
always  try  to  avoid  the  necessity  by  removing  alcohol  from  my  bath  by  evaporation,  as  often 
as  it  begins  to  annoy  me.  A  few  drops  of  alcohol  in  a  developer  may  not  be  injurious,  but 
I  never  could  see  any  good  results  from  it  as  long  as  the  bath  was  in  a  good  condition.  I 
work  as  nearly  as  possible  a  neutral  bath.  Only  a  slight  trace  of  acid  is  sufficient  to  keep  the 
deep  shadows  from  fogging.  I  use  in  my  bath  from  forty  to  fifty-five  grains  of  silver  to  the 
ounce. — J.  C.  POTTER. 

My  landscape  negative  bath  is  as  follows  : 

Nitrate  of  Silver,    .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .4  ounces. 

Distilled  Water, 40       " 

"When  the  silver  is  all  dissolved,  add  eight  grains  of  iodide  of  potassium  dissolved  in  one 
ounce  of  water;  shake  the  whole  well  up  and  filter.  In  trying  a  plate,  if  there  be  any  sign 
of  fog,  not  from  over-exposure,  add  one  or  two  drops  of  C.  P.  nitric  acid.  After  constant 
use  a  bath  becomes  saturated  with  excess  of  iodide,  alcohol,  ether,  and  organic  matter. 
When  in  this  state  it  is  almost  impossible  to  get  anything  like  clear  work.  The  quickest  and 
best  remedy,  then,  for  rectifying  the  bath  is  boiling. — T.  C.  ROCHE. 
The  two  collodions  which  I  use  for  field  work  are  as  follows: 

No.  1. — Alcohol, 10  ounces. 

Ether, 8      " 

Iodide  of  Ammonium, 81  grains. 

Bromide  of  Cadmium,     .........     35      " 

Cotton, 90      " 

No.  2. — Alcohol,  .         ;        .        .         .        .         .        .         .        .         .         .10  ounces. 

Ether, 10      " 

Iodide  of  Ammonium,     .........  100  grains. 

Bromide  of  Potassium 45      " 

Cotton, 120      " 

No.  1  is  a  light  collodion,  working  fine  detail,  but  not  great  intensity.  No.  2  is  a  heavy 
collodion,  working  less  detail  and  quite  intense.  Combining  the  two  properly  gives  you 


PHOTOGKAPHY    OUTSIDE.  245 

that  no  one  need  despair.     The  bath,  collodion,  and  developer  being  all 
right,  your  effects  should  be  so. 

309.  The  nicest  development  is  required  in  landscape  work,  and  in 
accomplishing  it  the  time  of  exposure  should  be  kept  constantly  in  mind; 
and  not  only  this,  the  nature  of  the  subject  should  be  remembered.  One 
great  difficulty  with  landscape  work,  particularly,  is  to  preserve  the  deli- 
cacy of  the  white  parts  without  rendering  the  contrast  with  tbe  darks 
too  strong  and  harsh.  As  a  usual  thing,  it  is  wiser  to  expose  fully  enough 
for  the  details  in  the  darker  parts,  and  let  the  rest  be  managed  the  best 
way  possible,  but  if,  as  in  case  of  clouds  or  a  waterfall,  the  light  parts 
are  the  most  important — expose  to  suit  them. 

almost  any  result  you  may  desire.     Good  judgment  and  careful  manipulation  should  make 
you  master  of  the  field. — J.  C.  POTTER. 
For  out-door  collodion,  I  use 

Alcohol,  ...........  ^  ounce. 

Ether, £      " 

Iodide  of  Ammonium,    .........  2J  grains. 

Iodide  of  Cadmium, 2J      " 

Bromide  of  Cadmium, 2£      " 

Gun-cotton, 5-6    " 

This  collodion  keeps  well,  and  is  good  for  view  and  portrait  work.  If  it  should  become 
too  pale  by  long  keeping,  which  it  will  do  when  the  gun-cotton  has  been  washed  in  diluted 
aqua  ammonia,  tint  it  with  a  solution  of  iodine  in  alcohol. — JOHN  L.  GIHON. 

309.  My  developer  for  field  work  is — 

Double  Sulphate  of  Iron  and  Ammonia,         .....       4  ounces. 

Water, 64  to  70  ounces. 

Yellow  Rock-candy, 3  to  4         " 

Acetic  Acid,  No.  8, 5  to  6         " 

If  the  silver  bath  has  been  in  use  long,  the  addition  of  one  ounce  of  alcohol  to  the  above 
developer  will  cause  the  solution  to  flow  more  freely.  As  a  general  rule,  this  developer  re- 
duces the  time  for  dark  details  at  least  one-third  ;  for  studio  work  this  developer  is  too  strong, 
and  should  be  reduced  with  water  to  suit  the  light. — T.  C.  EOCHE. 

Developer  for  out-door  negatives. — 

Glacial  Acetic  Acid,        .........       1  ounce. 

Water, 16  ounces. 

Protosulphate  of  Iron,  to  the  ounce  of  solution,    .         .         .         .     15  to  30  grains. 

The  proportions  have  to  be  varied  so  much  according  to  circumstances,  that  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  give  them  exactly.  With  a  little  practice  one  soon  learns  to  regulate  the  strength  of  the 
iron  and  acid  to  suit  the  work  in  hand.  In  warm  weather  the  developer  can  be  diluted  just 
before  using  ;  consequently,  one  can  carry  as  much  in  one  bottle  as  when  diluted  will  make 
two. — JOHN  L.  GIHON. 

Carry  development  as  far  as  possible.      If  trouble  ensues,  seek  the  remedy  elsewhere- 


246  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

310.  If  it  is  desirable  to  develop  the  plates  in  the  field,  and  it  is  the 
most  certain  and  safe  way,  then  a  dark-tent  must  he  employed.  If  the 
plate  is  kept  too  long  before  exposure,  it  will  become  stained.  Again,  a 
very  common  trouble  lies  in  the  bath  solution  not  remaining  evenly  dis- 
tributed over  the  exposed  plate,  but  collecting  in  streaks"  or  drops  of  oily 
appearance,  and  tending  to  unequal  and  defective  development.  This 
tendency  is  due  to  the  collodion  giving  a  film  too  horny  and  too  repellant 
of  aqueous  solutions.  It  may  arise  from  too  much  ether  in  the  collodion, 

There  should  be  no  conditions  to  make  this  last  rule  objectionable.  Great  stress  has  been 
laid  on  the  rare  good  judgment  which  should  carry  development  to  just  the  proper  point 
and  then  check  it.  In  my  practice,  the  proper  time  to  stop  is  when  the  iron  ceases  to  act  on 
the  negative,  and  no  sooner. — S.  K.  STODDARD. 

I  never  fix  my  negatives  until  I  return  to  my  gallery.  After  developing  and  rinsing  I 
flow  them  with  glycerin  and  water  mixed,  about  half  and  half,  or  enough  water  to  make 
the  glycerin  flow  evenly.  There  is  not  the  slightest  danger  of  their  spoiling  if  they  are 
not  fixed  for  one  week  after.  A  good  rinsing  before  fixing  is  all  that  is  necessary.  Rede- 
velopment may  be  resorted  to,  or  intensifying,  as  may  be  necessary. — J.  C.  POTTER. 

It  has  often  happened  in  my  practice,  and  no  doubt  in  that  of  others,  that  the  distant 
hills,  indications  of  clouds,  a  stream  of  water,  or  a  waterfall  in  a  landscape,  or  a  gentleman's 
white  tie,  the  folds  of  a  lady's  dress,  etc.,  are  distinctly  seen  when  the  negative  is  first 
developed  with  the  iron  developer,  but  on  redevelopment  are  lost,  and  become  one  unsightly 
patch  of  white  in  the  print.     This  may  be  avoided  in  a  great  measure  by  the  following  plan. 
When  the  details  are  well  out  with  the  iron  solution,  clear  with  cyanide,  well  wash  the  plate, 
and  allow  it  to  dry  ;  then  take  a  camel's-hair  pencil,  paint  over  the  light  to  be  preserved  with 
Gum  Datnmar,         ..........     30  grains. 

Benzole,   ............       1  ounce. 

This  will  dry  instantly.  Then  proceed  to  redevelop  the  negative  with  pyro  and  silver  in  the 
usual  way,  previously  using  a  dilute  iodine  solution.  The  pyro  and  silver  will  now  only  act 
upon  the  non-protected  parts  of  the  negative.  Care  must  be  taken  to  keep  within  the  limits 
of  boundary  given  by  the  lens,  which  is  not  a  difficult  matter,  as  the  solution  is  easy  to 
apply. — THOMAS  GULLIVER. 

310.  I  accoutre  myself  as  follows : 

Tent. — A  very  light  tripod  covered  with  two  thicknesses  of  black  calico,  and  one  inner 
one  of  yellow.  The  calico  is  about  twelve  inches  longer  than  the  tripod,  and  when  the  legs 
are  extended,  I  place  a  few  stones  upon  this  extra  cloth,  all  around  the  inside  of  the  tent,  to 
steady  it  and  keep  out  light.  The  cloth  is  also  wider  than  required  to  cover  the  extended 
tripod,  and,  when  I  sit  down  inside,  either  upon  my  plate-box  or  on  my  heels,  my  assistant 
brings  the  cloth  around  me,  overlaps  it  at  one  side,  and  keeps  it  there  during  development, 
etc.  I  find  this  tent  the  handiest  for  most  subjects  that  ever  I  tried.  When  not  in  use  the 
cloth  is  folded  around  the  tripod,  and  the  tent  is  then  placed  inside  of  the  camera-tripod,  and 
fixed  with  one  leather  strap  and  buckle.  These  (the  tent  and  the  camera-tripod)  form  one 
parcel  of  about  ten  pounds'  weight,  which  I  have  often  carried  in  my  hand  two  or  three 
miles  at  a  stretch.  For  country  work,  however,  there  can  be  nothing  better  or  more  easily 


PHOTOGRAPHY    OUTSIDE.  247 

in  which  case  alcohol  may  be  added,  but  more  frequently  the  pyroxylin 
is  in  fault.  With  different  operators,  the  time  during  which  the  plates 
may  be  kept  out  of  the  bath  before  use,  varies  extremely ;  it  is  a  com- 
mon complaint  by  operators  that  they  cannot  keep  their  plates  more  than 
a  few  minutes,  whilst  others  keep  them  from  a  quarter  of  an  hour  to  an 
hour  and  more.  As  the  trouble  arises  from  a  repulsion  between  the  film 
and  the  bath  solution,  it  is  evident  that  we  must  try  to  bring  them  nearer 
to  each  other  in  properties. 

set  up,  and,  if  one  lakes  care  to  dampen  it  inside  occasionally,  I  believe  negatives  more  free 
from  pinholes  can  be  done  in  it  than  in  any  developing-box,  and  it  is  twice  as  portable. 

Camera. — I  have  latterly  used  a  sliding  bellows-body  camera,  which  takes  plates  seven  by 
four  and  three-quarters,  with  two  sliding  fronts:  one  for  single  lenses  when  taking  negatives 
the  full  size  of  the  plate,  and  one  for  a  pair  of  stereoscopic  lenses,  the  flanges  of  the  latter 
made  to  fit  a  half-a-dozen  different  sized  lenses,  by  means  of  which  are  fitted  on  all  the 
lenses  except  the  largest  pair.  The  box  closes  up  to  two  and  a  half  inches,  and  draws  out  to 
eight  and  a  half,  and  it  can  be  turned  on  end  when  taking  upright  views.  It  has  also  a 
removable  centre  division,  which  can  be  taken  out  when  full-sized  plates  are  used. 

Lenses. — The  lenses  consist  of  a  triple  and  a  single  lens,  each  of  eight  inches  focus ;  and 
stereoscopic,  single  and  double,  of  six  inches,  four  and  a  half  inches,  seven  and  a  half 
inches,  and  two  and  a  half  inches  focus.  These  I  carry  in  leather  cases,  slung  on  a  leather 
belt  worn  over  the  shoulder  like  a  shot-belt. 

Chemicals. — All  my  chemicals  are  put  in  sixteen-ounce  bottles,  and  packed  in  baskets 
made  for  the  purpose:  a  large  one  for  carrying  a  stock,  and  a  small  one  for  holding  sufficient 
for  a  day's  work.  The  latter,  when  filled,  contains  three  sixteen-ounce  bottles  of  sensitizing 
bath,  one  of  developer,  the  glass  bath  and  dipper  in  a  wooded  case,  eight  two-ounce  bottles 
of  collodion,  three  two-ounce  bottles  of  glacial  acetic  acid,  one  six-ounce  bottle  of  cyanide 
solution,  one  dripping-bottle,  one  six-ounce  bottle  of  crystals  of  sulphate  of  iron,  one  two- 
ounce  bottle  of  crystals  of  cyanide,  and  a  small  glass  funnel,  one  gutta-percha  funnel,  a 
plate-holder,  a  small  portfolio  holding  filtering-paper,  a  dusting-brush,  chamois  leather,  and 
two  towels.  All  these  go  into  a  handy  basket,  which  my  assistant  easily  straps  on  his  back, 
so  that  when  we  start  to  the  field  or  mountain,  I  have  the  tent  and  camera-stand  in  one  hand, 
my  plate-box,  containing  twenty-four  plates,  in  the  other,  with  the  lenses,  in  their  cases  over 
my  shoulder.— GEORGE  WASHINGTON  WILSON. 

It  frequently  happens  during  the  hot  summer  months  that  we  have  to  go  out  to  take 
monuments,  and  sick  or  debilitated  people,  but  find  in  such  places  no  means  of  developing. 
Such  has  been  my  experience  this  summer,  which  led  me  to  make  some  experiments  in  order 
to  keep  the  collodion  moist.  I  tried  several  means  and  ways  to  no  purpose,  until  I  tried 
the  following:  Pure  glycerin,  one  ounce;  condensed  water,  half  an  ounce;  shake  well,  and 
after  the  plate  is  coated,  drain,  and  wash  with  clean  soft  water  until  the  greasy  lines  are 
nearly  all  gone  ;  then  pour  over  it  the  glycerin  on  and  off,  till  all  the  lines  are  gone.  Let 
it  drain  for  a  time,  and  place  it  in  the  shield.  It  will  keep  moist  for  three  or  four  hours, 
with  the  thermometer  at  104°;  the  time  required  is  from  fifteen  to  thirty  seconds,  according 
to  light  and  stop  used  in  the  lens.  I  develop  with  iron,  rather  weak  at  first,  twelve  grains 
to  the  ounce ;  I  use  glacial  acetic  acid,  two  to  twenty-four  ounces,  until  it  penetrates  the 


248  WILSON'S   PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

311.  There  are  still  other  methods  of  preserving  the  plate  for  a  long 
time  between  the  time  of  coating  and  developing  it.  One  of  the  best 
consists  in  the  addition  of  a  few  drops  of  water  to  the  collodion.  The 
method  employed  in  such  cases  is  as  follows :  A  good  ripe  collodion 
should  be  used,  and  new  strictly  avoided;  to  this,  drop  by  drop,  distilled 
water  is  added,  equivalent  to  about  two  drops  to  each  ounce  of  collodion; 
after  the  addition  of  each  two  or  three  drops,  the  collodion  is  well  shaken, 
lest  the  precipitation  of  the  cotton  should  occur;  after  this,  carefully 
filter.  There  is  much  in  the  manner  of  adding  the  water,  by  small  de- 
film  ;  then  I  add  silver,  five  grains  to  the  ounce,  pour  it  over  the  plate,  when,  to  my  delight, 
the  picture  comes  out  boldly  and  clearly.  In  order  to  get  up  intensity,  add  more  iron  and 
silver,  after  which  treat  it  as  usual  with  negatives.  Any  mode  of  developing  generally 
practised  will  do,  with  the  addition  of  silver  ;  but  without  it,  there  is  only  a  faint  outline  of 
a  picture.  I  have  never  seen  this  recommended  in  any  of  the  journals,  but  hope  it  will  be 
fully  tested  by  more  skilled  hands. — B.  S.  COOPER. 

Every  photographer  is  familiar  with  the  risks  of  stains  from  partial  drying  of  the  plate, 
when  a  long  time  elapses  between  exciting  and  developing  the  plate.  Here  is  a  method 
the  extreme  simplicity  of  which  will  entitle  it  at  least  to  a  trial,  and  one  trial  will  prove  its 
utility.  The  plan  is  simply  to  flood  the  plate  with  a  few  drachms  of  distilled  water  previous  to 
exposure,  the  water  is  then  poured  from  the  plate  to  a  developing-glass,  and  must  on  no  ac- 
count be  thrown  away,  for  in  this  appears  to  lie  the  secret  of  success.  After  exposure,  the 
plate  is  again  flooded  with  the  same  water  that  was  previously  used,  and  which,  after 
thoroughly  moistening  the  film,  is  again  returned  to  the  developing-glass,  and  mixed  with 
the  required  quantity  of  developer,  and  the  development  proceeded  with  as  usual.  Plates  so 
treated  will  give  pictures  as  clear  and  free  from  markings  as  if  only  exposed  in  the  camera 
for  a  few  seconds. — JOHN  L.  GIHON. 

311.  In  my  own  practice  I  have  always  been  able  to  avoid  this  inconvenience  by  redipping 
the  plate  in  the  bath  just  before  development,  and  I  recommend  this  course  as  a  cure  for  the 
evil.  The  quality  of  the  pyroxylin  has  much  to  do  with  this,  as  also  the  salts  with  which 
the  collodion  is  bromo-iodized  ;  and  it  is  a  noticeable  fact  that  in  the  bromide  process  with 
the  bath  this  evil  is  much  less  in  plates  kept  very  long  than  in  the  ordinary  bromo-iodide 
process. — COL.  STUART  WORTLEY. 

Some  of  our  best  landscape  photographers  have  been  for  some  time  developing  in  the  field, 
and  finishing  up  at  home  in  the  evening  or  next  morning.  The  mode  is  as  follows:  After 
developing  the  plate,  wash  off  with  water  ;  then  flow  over  a  solution  of  glycerin — 

Water,    .         .        .         .         .        .         .         .         .         .         .         .     4  or  5  ounces. 

Glycerin, 1  ounce. 

Alcohol, £    " 

Or  you  can  dispense  with  water  in  washing  off  the  iron,  and  flow  on  a  solution  of — 

Glycerin,         .  1  ounce. 

Water, 4  ounces. 

Acetic  Acid,    .  1  ounce. 

Flow  on  like  collodion  and  drain  ;  then  flow  on  a  second  time,  and  put  the  plate  in  the 
negative-box.  In  this  way  you  lose  no  time  in  finishing  up,  but  can  keep  on  taking  nega- 


PHOTOGKAPHY   OUTSIDE.  249 

grees,  and  carefully  shaking  after  each  addition.  Plates  coated  with 
collodion  so  modified  will  keep  free  from  stains  three  hours  in  "a  moder- 
ately dry  temperature. 

312.  Sometimes  it  is  necessary,  too,  to  keep  the  plates  a  long  time 
after  exposure  before  they  can  be  developed  and  fixed;  and,  again,  when 
they  have  been  thus  kept,  after-manipulation  is  required  in  order  to  bring 
them  up  to  a  proper  printing  quality.     All  these  little  niceties  must  be 
studied.     In  no  branch  of  the  art  is  the  exercise  of  careful  thought  more 
essential  than  in  this,  provided  you  are  not  content  with  indifferent  results. 

313.  As  to  interior  work,  i.e.,  views  of  the  interiors  of  churches,  dwell- 
ings, factories,  and  what  not,  the  manipulations  are  largely  the  same  as 

tives.  Plates  with  glycerin  on  them  will  keep  a  week  or  more  with  safety.  When  you 
reach  home,  wash  off  the  glycerin,  and  fix  in  weak  cyanide;  then  force  up,  if  required,  by 
any  of  the  well-known  methods. — T.  C.  KOCHE. 

312.  I  prefer,  after  fixing  and  washing,  to  flow  over  the  plate  a  solution  of 

Acetic  Acid,  No.  8,          .........         ^  ounce. 

Water, 5  ounces. 

I  then  drain  and  flow  over  a  solution  of  pyrogallic  acid,  No.  1,  mixed  with  a  few  drops  of 
acid  silver,  as  per  formula  No.  2. 

1. — Pyro,       ............     60  grains. 

Water, 20  ounces. 

Citric  Acid, 20  grains. 

2.— Silver, 20  grains. 

Citric  Acid, 10       " 

Water,     ............       1  ounce. 

This  will  bring  the  negative  up  to  a  good  printing  color,  which  will  not  change.  Dry  and 
varnish  the  negative.  Keep  the  shield  and  camera  free  from  dust  in  working,  and  take  a 
general  interest  in  your  apparatus. — T.  C  BOCHE. 

Take  iodine  one  drachm,  iodide  of  potassium  one  drachm  ;  dissolve  in  twenty  ounces  of 
distilled  water.  This  forms  a  stock  solution  of  the  color  of  good  old  port,  and  for  use  may 
be  diluted  six  times.  "When  the  plate  has  been  developed  and  washed  as  usual,  flood  it  with 
this  dilute  fluid,  and  keep  it  on  about  half  a  minute  ;  then  wash  again,  and  put  in  the  drain- 
ing-box.  The  plates  may  be  intensified  at  any  time  ;  but  I  prefer,  on  getting  home,  to  let 
them  dry  in  daylight  on  a  rack,  and  if  any  further  intensity  is  required  (though  this  is  not 
often  the  case),  it  is  done  either  with  iron  and  citric  acid  or  pyrogallic  and  citric  in  daylight, 
and  fixed  as  usual.  I  can  scarcely  give  too  much  prominence  to  the  importance  of  this 
matter. — SAMUEL  FRY. 

313.  Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  take  a  view  of  an  interior  or  of  some  object  at  a  distance 
from  the  dark-room ;  in  either  case,  when  as  much  as  two  hours  must  elapse  between  the  plate 
leaving  the  bath  and  its  development,  the  only  extra  precautions  to  be  observed  are,  collodion 
quite  ripe,  and  if  inclined  to  give  stains,  the  addition  of  a  little  water,  say  one  drop  to  the 
ounce,  will  cure  it.      Bath  proper  strength,  free  from  organic  matter,  and  rather  acid. 
Allow  the  collodion  to  set  well  before  putting  the  plate  into  the  bath,  and  when  in  keep  it 


250  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

the  others,  only  the  exposure  must  he  very  much  lengthened,  when  one 
or  the  other  of  these  hints  as  to  the  preservation  of  the  plate  will  be 
found  of  use.  The  collodion  may  be  modified  to  suit  the  lighting  of  the 
subject,  and,  as  a  rule,  a  weaker  developer  is  used.  In  these  times  the 
wet  plate  is  seldom  used  for  interior  work.  See  the  lesson  following. 

moving  the  whole  time,  and  directly  the  greasiness  has  disappeared,  drain,  and  put  it  into 
the  slide,  with  a  piece  of  wet  jrellow  calico  behind  it.  If  it  is  an  interior  that  is  taken  on 
this  plate,  the  developer  will  range  from  medium  to  strong,  as  it  happens  to  be  well  or  badly 
lit;  if  it  is  an  out-door  view  away  from  the  tent  that  has  necessitated  the  plate  being  kept, 
a  developer  from  medium  to  weak  will  be  required.  I  find,  as  a  rule  in  this  case,  that  a  less 
exposure  and  a  weaker  developer  are  required  than  if  the  tent  had  been  on  the  spot,  and  the 
plate  been  kept  ten  minutes  instead  of  two  hours. — JOHN  L.  GIHON. 

These  two  items  (hot  water  and  sugar)  to  the  landscape  photographer  are  of  great  impor- 
tance. By  the  first  distilled  water  is  superseded  in  the  making  up  of  baths,  and  a  more 
perfect  solution  of  silver  is  obtained,  with  a  thorough  elimination  of  organic  matter.  In 
the  case  of  the  developer  a  greater  saturation  of  iron,  and,  if  to  it  be  added  a  small 
proportion  of  white  crystallized  sugar,  will  not  only  make  it  keep  almost  indefinitely,  but 
will  impart  to  it  such  qualities  as  to  make  it  a  pleasure  to  work  with.  Besides  creating  a 
saving  of  alcohol  and  acetic  acid,  it  equalizes  the  action  of  the  iron  on  the  film,  restraining 
the  development,  and  rendering  over-exposure  a  matter  of  rare  occurrence. — W.  HARDING 
WARNER. 

My  collodion  formula  for  making  interior  views  ia 

Alcohol,  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .11  ounces. 

Ether, • 5       " 

Iodide  of  Sodium, 48  grains. 

Iodide  of  Ammonium,    .........     48       " 

Bromide  of  Sodium,        .........     48       " 

Chloride  of  Magnesium, 48       " 

Cotton,  1J  grains  more  to  the  ounce  than  for  portrait  collodion. 
Pure  Spirits  of  Wood  Naphtha,  i  ounce  to  16  ounces  of  collodion. 

By  using  the  above  collodion,  a  negative  can  be  exposed  for  thirty  minutes,  without  any 
of  the  usual  defects  which  are  caused  by  a  long  exposure. — OLD  ARGENTUM. 

When  we  arrive  at  a  point  where  we  intend  to  work,  I  immediately  unstrap  the  tent 
and  set  it  up,  whilst  my  assistant  collects  a  few  stones  to  keep  it  steady;  and  whilst  I  am 
arranging  my  bath  and  chemicals  in  the  tent,  my  assistant  runs  to  fill  his  cans  with 
water  at  the  nearest  source.  By  the  time  he  returns  I  am  ready  to  coat  a  plate  (which  I 
always  do  inside  the  tent),  and,  as  the  plate  is  getting  read}7,  I  place  my  camera  ready  to 
receive  it.  If  it  is  a  subject  we  are  attempting  which  can  be  taken  instantaneously,  I  use 
my  six-inch  focus  lenses  with  a  five-eighth  inch  stop,  and  expose  by  removing  and  replacing 
the  cap  of  the  lens  as  quickly  as  possible;  but  if  it  is  a  subject  requiring  a  long  exposure,  I 
make  a  guess  for  the  first  plate,  and,  from  long  habit,  generally  succeed  in  hitting  it  pretty 
exactly.  In  spring,  the  actinic  property  of  light  appears  to  be  very  active,  and  it  is  only 
then  that  I  have  succeeded  in  getting  passable  instantaneous  pictures.  Early  in  the  season 
views  of  buildings  may  be  taken  with  a  small  stop  in  from  two  to  ten  seconds,  and  landscapes 
with  trees  in  from  five  to  fifteen  seconds;  but  by  the  month  of  August  and  September  I  find 


PHOTOGRAPHY    OUTSIDE.  251 

314.  A  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  art  is  quite  as  essential  to  the 
photographer  outside  of  the  studio  as  to  the  one  who  makes  portraits 
only,  and  therefore  much  of  the  instruction  given  in  Lesson  A  will  be 
found  useful  when  prosecuting  this  delightful  branch  of  photography. 
For  the  education  of  the  eye,  the  balancing  of  the  lines,  contrast,  choice 
of  position,  composition,  light  and  shade,  and  all  such  essentials,  are  quite 

from  thirty  to  sixty-six  seconds  are  required  for  most  landscape  views,  and  instantaneous 
exposures  are  of  no  use  except  for  clouds  and  water.  The  plate  being  exposed,  I  get  myself 
shut  up  in  the  tent,  and  develop  in  the  usual  way,  by  dashing  on  the  solution  as  quickly  as 
possible,  and  moving  about  the  plate  to  prevent  stains.  If  it  is  an  instantaneous  view,  all 
the  details  should  come  up  slowly  and  distinctly;  but  I  keep  on  moving  the  plates  for  two 
or  three  minutes,  so  as  to  get  all  that  I  can  up  before  washing  off  the  developer.  This  I  do 
carefully  and  slowly,  and  as  the  negative  in  this  stage  is  very  thin  in  deposit,  I  pour  from 
my  dropping-bottle  a  small  stream  of  nitrate  of  silver  along  the  side  of  the  plate,  and  let  it  flow 
over  the  whole  surface  before  dashing  on  a  fresh  dose  of  developing  solution,  keeping  the  plate 
moving  as  usual.  When  this  has  acted  for  a  minute  or  so  I  wash  it  off  again  very  carefully, 
and  repeat  the  process  sometimes  three  or  four  times,  if  necessary,  until  the  requisite  printing 
density  is  attained  ;  then,  after  a  slight  washing,  I  bring  it  outside  the  tent,  wash  thoroughly, 
and  fix  with  cyanide  of  potassium.  If  the  plate  has  a  long  exposure  with  a  small  stop,  I  find 
one  redevelopment  generally  enough ;  but  if  the  plate  looks  too  thin  after  fixing,  I  sometimes 
take  it  into  the  tent  and  redevelop  a  second  time.  The  cyanide,  however,  must  be  well  washed 
off,  otherwise  there  is  danger  of  getting  a  reddish  deposit  upon  the  shadows. — GEORGE 
WASHINGTON  WILSON. 

Never  study  economy  in  lenses,  apparatus,  etc.  Never  attempt  any  subject  if  the  light 
be  not  suitable,  as,  however  good  the  picture  (or  rather,  I  should  say,  the  negative)  may  ap- 
pear, it  always  disappoints  one  afterwards.  Never  focus  carelessly.  Very  much  depends 
on  this.  As  a  rule,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  focus  some  central  object  in  the  view.  For  interiors 
especially  this  is  a  most  important  matter,  and  sometimes  difficult.  It  is  a  good  dodge  to 
fasten  up  some  large  type — the  heading  of  a  newspaper,  for  instance — in  a  central  position. 
This  gives  one  a  good  chance  of  getting  a  sharp  picture.  Never  use  any  but  the  best  patent 
plate,  which,  by-the-by,  do  not  elean  with  anything  but  alcohol,  as  tripoli,  etc.,  only  adds 
another  evil  to  the  bath.  Never  waste  time  in  doctoring  an  old  bath.  Make  a  new  one, 
and  this  as  simply  as  possible,  thirty-five  grains  of  silver  to  each  ounce  of  water ;  add  a 
little  old  collodion,  filter,  and  it  is  ready  for  immediate  use.  (I  have  always  found  that  the 
ordinary  nitrate  of  silver  answers  every  purpose.)  Never,  after  securing  one  good  negative, 
leave  the  ground  till  you  have  tried  for  a  duplicate,  which  is  often  better.  The  greatest 
secret  in  the  negative  process,  to  my  mind,  is  a  properly-timed  exposure;  herein  lies  the 
great  art  of  photography,  and  makes  a  difference  between  a  picture  and  a  photograph.  If 
you  are  required  to  drag  out  your  child,  he  only  looks  sullen  when  he  appears. — FRANK  M. 
GOOD. 

314.  When  you  come  down  to  real,  legitimate  landscape  work,  then  you  must  study. 
There  is  always  a  time  of  day  when  the  light  is  better  on  any  subject  than  another,  and  this 
you  should  make  your  particular  study.  If  of  a  chain  of  mountains,  carefully  regard  the 
time  when  the  shadows  so  fall  as  to  give  you  the  beat  outlines  and  the  best  effects  in  the  val 


252  WILSON'S    PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

as  important  in  their  place  in  the  one  as  in  the  other.  Out  of  doors  you 
meet  your  chief  helper,  light,  on  its  own  ground,  and  there  you  may 
study  its  nature  and  learn  to  manage  it  to  much  better  advantage  than 
when  in  the  studio.  Again,  with  art  principles  instilled  within  the  mind, 
there  is  constant  opportunity  out  of  doors  to  practise  them,  and  to  com- 
pare nature  with  their  teachings.  Be  assured,  there  is  as  much  in  com- 
posing a  landscape  as  there  is  in  managing  a  composition  under  the  sky- 
light; yea,  even  more,  and  often  the  landscape  photographer  must  wait 
patiently  until  the  light  falls  to  suit  him;  for  he  has  no  curtain  nor  screen 
to  direct  at  his  will. 

315.  The  photographer  entering  the  field  must  first  choose  his  subject, 
and  his  knowledge  of  art  principles  will  now  come  in  to  help  him  select 
and  arrange  and  combine  in  a  picture  the  material  which  he  has  at  hand, 
so  as  to  produce  the  most  agreeable  result,  and  to  tell  the  story.  To  se- 
cure a  picture  of  a  lake,  it  must  not  be  taken  from  the  narrowest  end 
where  a  bridge  crosses  it,  and,  filling  up  the  foreground,  hides  the  beauti- 
ful water  and  all  chances  at  reflections.  That  would  be  a  picture  of  a 
bridge  and  not  of  the  lake.  All  through,  harmony  and  unity  and  balance 
of  the  lines,  writh  light  and  shade,  are  the  chief  things  to  be  looked  after. 
Once  upon  the  ground,  you  begin  to  combine  one  part  writh  the  other.  A 
vast  expanse  of  beauty  is  spread  out  before  you,  and  invites  you  to  make 

leys ;  if  of  a  woodside  or  a  grove,  perhaps  a  little  lake  or  pond,  near  at  hand,  may  secure 
you  some  lovely  reflections  ;  if  of  the  pebbly  beach,  some  shattered  spars  or  broken  pieces 
of  a  wreck  may  add  interest  to  your  foreground,  or  a  coil  of  cast-off  rope  be  made  to  cover 
the  ugliness  of  a  heap  of  sea-weed.  Again,  if  you  are  striving  to  snap  up  all  the  possible 
detail  in  a  noisy,  saucy  waterfall,  if  the  fluttering  branches  of  a  tree  are  in  danger  of  spoiling 
your  foreground,  consider  no  labor  too  great  to  cut  them  out  of  the  way.  I  have  spent  an 
hour  in  this  kind  of  work,  cutting  away  bushes  and  limbs  until  I  had  taken  the  wind  right 
by  the  horns,  and  completely,  disabled  it  from  doing  me  harm.  More  than  that,  I  was  with 
a  good  friend  the  other  day  who  climbed  nearly  thirty  feet  up  a  nasty,  rough  cedar  tree, 
holding  on  by  his  teeth,  claws,  and  toe-nails,  hatchet  in  hand,  chopping  away  at  the  tough 
limbs  until  his  dear  cascade  was  unobstructed.  Not  only  that,  he  drove  seventy  miles  in  his 
wagon  to  get  the  view,  and  seventy  miles  back.  Now  all  such  as  these  I  call  escapes — 
escapes  from  making  bad  pictures. — GEORGE  W.  WALLACE. 

315.  Select  the  view  you  desire  to  picture,  and  study  it  under  all  the  effects  of  light,  shade, 
and  shadow,  from  "early  dawn  till  dewy  eve."  Photographs  taken  each  hour  through  the 
day,  without  changing  the  position  of  the  camera,  will  produce  quite  a  variety  of  effects, 
some  of  them  appearing  as  unlike  others  as  though  they  were  of  different  views.  By  study- 
ing nature  closely  under  all  her  phases,  you  will  shortly  learn,  when  looking  upon  a  scene 
at  any  time  of  day  (by  simply  consulting  your  pocket-compass),  just  the  proper  hour  to  visit 
the  place  with  your  camera  in  order  to  obtain  the  best  possible  effect. — JAMES  MULLEN. 


PHOTOGRAPHY    OUTSIDE.  253 

free  and  help  yourself.  But  you  are  a  photographer,  and  you  know  the 
capacity  of  your  art  is  limited.  You  must  therefore  practise  self-denial, 
and  take  only  what  photography  will  give  you,  and  what  it  will  secure 
for  you  well.  And  this  thought  brings  to  mind  the  size  and  extent  of  the 
view  to  be  taken. 

316.  The  size  of  the  picture  is  somewhat  a  matter  of  choice,  and  yet 
it  has  much  to  do  with  the  general  effect.     The  5x8  inches  and  the  8x10 
inches  are  perhaps  the  most  popular  and  advantageous  sizes  as  to  glass, 
when  other  than  stereoscopic  pictures  are  to  be  made.     As  to  the  amount 
of  subject  to  be  chosen,  that,  too,  is  a  matter  governed  by  choice  and 
circumstance.     Views  including  a  vast  amount  of  subject  are  never  so 
attractive,  as  pictures,  as  those  made  of  the  richest  "bits"  at  a  less  distance 
from  the  camera.     A  short  view  is  generally  the  most  satisfactory,  too, 
because  the  objects  are  larger,  and  the  lighting  may  be  managed  with 
more  ease  and  satisfaction. 

317.  The  point  of  sight  from  which  to  make  the  picture  must  be  regu- 

316.  The  size  of  the  glass  must  necessarily  decide  in  a  great  measure  the  expense  and  weight 
of  the  outfit,  as  a  large  plate  requires  a  large  camera-box,  lens,  and  every  other  article  in 
proportion  ;    whereas  a  small  plate  reduces  immensely  both  these  items.     I  would  advise 
either  a  glass  of  6£  x  8J,  or  5  x  8  inches  ;  each  size  has  some  advantages  over  the  other.     For 
example,  should  stereoscopic  work  be  the  principal  object,  then  preference  may  be  given  to 
the  5x8  size;  under  most  conditions  this  plate  is  very  useful.     By  using  one  lens  only  a 
picture  can  be  made  over  the  whole  plate,  of  pleasing  proportions,  when  the  length  of  the 
glass  is  placed  horizontally  ;  if  placed  upright  in  the  camera,  or  the  box  turned  on  its  end, 
the  picture  will  be  too  narrow  for  its  length  ;  but  as  by  far  the  greater  proportion  of  pictures 
are  made  with  the  length  of  the  glass  horizontal,  this  defect  is  of  less  importance.     The  ad- 
vantages of  the  6 \  x  82  glass  are  :  The  single  picture  is  somewhat  larger  ;  the  position  of  the 
glass  plate  in  the  camera  can  be  either  lengthwise  or  perpendicular  without  injuring  the 
proportions  of  the  picture.     Stereoscopic  work  is  admissible,  but  at  a  waste  of  glass  and 
chemicals.     A  frame  or  kit  can,  however,  be  readily  fitted  into  the  dark-holder  to  take  a 
5x8  plate,  so  that  for  general  landscape  photography  I  would  advise  either  of  the  above- 
mentioned  sizes. — J.  C.  BROWNE. 

As  a  general  thing,  there  is  much  more  interest  in  a  short  view  than  there  is  in  a  long  one, 
which  comprehends  a  large  amount  of  territory.  There  may  be  instances  where  "distance 
lends  enchantment  to  the  view,"  but  it  is  seldom  the  case  in  landscape  photography.  Moun- 
tain scenery  may  be  an  exception. — J.  C.  POTTER. 

317.  We  will  suppose  you  intend  taking  a  photograph  of  a  street.     Select  some  important 
object  for  a  foreground,  place  your  camera  about  six  feet  from  the  opposite  side  to  your 
principal  object,  including  in  your  picture  a  portion  of  the  building  on  the  same  side  of  the 
street  on  which  you  have  fixed  your  camera.    You  have  then  made  the  most  of  your  principal 
object,  the  perspective  gradually  merging  more  to  one  end  of  the  plate  than  the  other,  and 
securing  a  pleasing  composition.     Observe  a  similar  arrangement  in  river  scenes,  old  lanes, 


254  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

lated  somewhat  by  circumstances,  but  sometimes  circumstances  may  be 
made  to  bend  to  your  will,  and  give  you  a  choice.  Diagonal  composition 
and  aerial  perspective  (see  Lesson  A)  now  come  in  to  your  aid,  and 
must  be  duly  regarded  and  allowed  to  influence  you  in  your  choice,  be 
your  subject  in  hand  a  street  view,  or  amidst  the  rocks  and  rills  and 
the  sunny  hills. 

318.  Having  decided  pretty  nearly  where  to  place  the  camera,  you 
now  begin  to  arrange  your  composition,  so  to  speak.  The  novice  will 
have  to  shift  to  the  right,  to  the  left,  go  higher  or  lower,  until  he  knows 
full  well  what  he  may  exact  from  his  lens,  or  how  he  stands  as  to  the 
matter  of  light  and  shade  and  perspective.  But  all  this  is  good,  refining, 
and  cultivating.  A  dozen  and  one  things  will  occur  to  perplex  him,  but 
his  art  principles  will  always  offer  a  helping  hand  if  he  will  only  be  led 
by  them,  especially  in  arranging  his  composition.  Never  be  satisfied 
with  "good  enough."  Expend  your  ambition,  rather,  on  trying  to  secure 
a  single  first-class  view  than  on  obtaining  a  dozen  indifferent  ones.  It 
will  pay  the  best  in  the  end,  both  in  experience  and  in  money. 

etc.;  indeed,  the  same  simple  arrangement  applies  to  many  classes  of  subjects.  After  a  few 
trials,  the  novice  will  be  able  to  select  for  his  picture  a  good  point  of  view.  If  the  subject 
be  only  a  trunk  of  an  old  tree,  an  isolated  rock,  spire,  or  tower  of  a  church,  always  arrange 
it  more  to  one  side  than  the  other  of  your  plate.  It  must  be  understood  that  there  are 
numerous  subjects  that  no  fixed  rule  would  be  applicable  to;  in  such  the  operator  would 
have  to  rely  on  his  own  judgment  to  arrange  his  picture;  but  careful  study  will  soon  make 
difficult  pictures  as  easy  to  arrange  as  the  most  simple.  It  is  desirable  to  avoid  small  stops, 
and  not  attempt  sharp,  hard  pictures.  I  work  with  as  large  an  opening  as  the  subject  will 
admit,  taking  care  to  get,  if  possible,  a  soft  negative  with  a  very  brief  exposure;  long 
exposures,  with  small  stops,  produce  flat,  tame  negatives,  without  relief. — REUBEN  MITCHELL. 
318.  "We  must  generally  take  Nature  as  we  find  her.  Recently,  I  made  a  few  negatives  in 
a  romantic  part  of  the  country  within  a  hundred  miles  of  our  city.  How  often  the  lines  of 
the  picture  were  perfect,  the  foreground  everything  desirable,  but  Nature  was  in  the  sulks; 
she  would  not  smile — no  sun  shone.  Then,  again,  everything  seemed  in  good  humor;  the 
sun  shone,  but  a  wind  was  blowing  great  guns.  Another  time  wind  and  weather  were 
favorable,  but  the  foreground  was  bad — a  great  bank  of  sand  hiding  a  choice  piece  of  middle 
distance.  Yet,  determined  to  succeed,  I  changed  point,  and  carried  boulders  and  mossy 
logs  to  make  a  presentable  foreground,  when  a  dense  smoke  from  bush  fires  settled  down  and 
spoiled  everything.  I  waited  around  for  eight  days,  but  had  to  leave  without  my  picture. 
Had  I  the  ability  to  paint  my  subject,  from  one  point  I  could  get  the  middle-distance  and 
upper  part  of  the  picture.  I  would  then  have  stepped  a  few  feet  to  the  left  and  obtained  a 
fine  tree  for  foreground,  and  then  returning  a  few  feet  to  the  right,  I  would  have  had  some 
rocks,  beautifully  marked,  to  form  a  strong  point  in  the  foreground,  also,  making  my  gem 
complete*. — W.  J.  TOPLEY. 


PHOTOGRAPHY    OUTSIDE. 


255 


FIG.  73. 


319.  To  what  has  been  said  in  Lesson  A  on  aerial  perspective  and  the 
balancing  of  the  lines,  reference  must  now  be  had  again,  and  comparison 
made  with  the  model 
view  here  given, 
"On  the  Shores  of 
the  River  Xeuse,"  by 
Jan  Van  Goyen.  It 
seems  to  possess 
nearly  all  the  ele- 
ments laid  down  for 
a  good  landscape  in 
the  rules,  for  the 
artist  has  conformed 
strictly  to  the  cus- 
toms of  art.  You 
can  see  how  his  pic- 
ture gains  in  value 
by  such  a  course,  if  you  but  exercise  the  imagination  a  little  bit.  Take 
from  it,  then,  the  groups  in  the  foreground  and  heap  of  old  piles  and  bits 
of  grass,  and  see  what  a  destruction  of  the  beauty  of  the  composition 
will  occur.  You  not  only  thus  destroy  the  effect  of  perspective,  but  you 
deprive  the  picture  of  the  perfect  balance  which  it  possesses,  and  the 
repetition  of  lines  which  occurs  in  the  foreground  of  those  in  the  dis- 
tance. Again,  the  lines  in  the  distance  would  appear  to  want  collecting 
together  and  regulating ;  the  distance  would  come  forward,  so  to  speak, 

319.  One  who  truly  loves  and  studies  nature,  sees  constantly  beautiful  pictures  on  every 
side  whilst  travelling  over  the  country.  It  does  not  always  require  a  grand  scene  of  rocks, 
river,  and  mountain  to  make  up  a  picture.  Very  simple  things,  which  a  person  not  accus- 
tomed to  observe  would  pass  by  unnoticed,  will,  in  the  hands  of  one  who  has  the  knowledge  and 
tact  to  properly  picture  them,  be  made  very  attractive  and  artistic  too.  Small  bits  of  landscape 
I  would  advise  as  preferable  for  the  beginner  as  being  more  simple,  and  a  variety  of  composition 
and  effect  can  be  produced  with  greater  ease  and  simpler  means.  The  foreground  being  one 
of  the  main  points  in  the  picture,  and  generally  required  to  be  bold  and  effective,  can,  if  not 
naturally  so,  be  made  so  in  a  great  measure  by  a  little  labor  in  the  way  of  rolling  up  an  old 
log  or  stump  in  an  effective  position,  or  placing  a  bush  or  clump  of  large-leaved  weeds  where 
they  will  be  of  service  in  making  a  proper  balance  or  contrast  as  may  be  needed.  And  let 
me  advise  you  here  to  always  have  with  you,  on  your  photographic  trips,  a  spade  and  a  good 
ixe;  the  latter  particularly  will  often  be  found  "a  friend  in  need,"  when  it  is  desirable  to 
cut  a  small  tree  or  remove  a  branch  that  would  otherwise  obscure  some  important  point  of 
your  view. — JAMES  MULLEN. 


256  WILSON'S    PHOTOGKAPH1CS. 

into  the  foreground,  and  the  parts  would  not  assume  their  proper  relation 
to  each  other.  The  huildings  on  the  left  and  right  would  seem  to  topple 
into  the  water,  and  the  sails  seem  to  be  speeding  over  some  empty  space 
or  precipice.  Again,  remove  all  the  objects  in  the  distance,  and  see  where 
your  perspective  would  be ;  and  consider,  too,  what  a  miserable  picture 
you  would  then  have,  with  nothing  but  a  black  mass  in  your  foreground, 
against  a  shimmering,  unending  sea  of  light. 

320.  And  after  all  these  points  are  looked  after  comes  the  all-impor- 
tant subject  of  light.  Upon  it  depends  all.  It  not  only  secures  the  brill- 
iancy of  the  picture,  but  it  even  changes  the  forms  and  sizes,  seemingly, 
of  the  objects  included  in  the  view.  It  lengthens  and  shortens  the  shad- 
ows, it  gives  the  contrasts  of  light  and  shade,  it  gives  the  detail  where 
wanted,  and  all  the  snap  and  life  there  is  to  the  whole  composition  is 
regulated  by  the  light.  In  every  picture  there  are  points  which  are  more 

320.  Brilliancy  in  a  photograph  is  a  mere  matter  of  intensity  altogether  irrespective  of 
any  artistic  consideration.  It  alters  neither  form  nor  composition  ;  but  sunshine  not  only 
supplies  this  intensity,  but  especially  improves  the  picture  by  varying  the  forms.  In  illus- 
tration of  this,  take  a  foreground  with  nothing  but  a  grass  bank  and  short  herbage  growing 
upon  it;  the  advocates  of  no  sunlight  represent  it  as  a  blank  and  even  patch,  which  it  pos- 
sibly may  be,  but,  give  sunshine  a  chance,  and  the  shadows  of  neighboring  trees,  etc.,  or 
inequalities  in  a  ground  itself,  make  a  broken  and  pleasant  effect  without  an  accessory  of 
any  kind.  "What  applies  here  to  the  small  piece  of  foreground  holds  good  with  the  whole 
of  the  landscape,  and  I  firmly  believe  that  no  landscape  was  ever  taken  on  a  sunless  day,  no 
matter  how  successfully,  but  would,  with  the  same  skill  of  manipulation,  have  been  in- 
finitely better  done  on  a  sunny  one.  In  fact,  it  is  a  mystery  to  me  how  any  one  who  has 
intelligently  studied  landscape  effect  at  all  could  think  otherwise.  Because  there  is  sunlight, 
there  is  no  necessity  for  chalkiness  or  snowy  effect  in  the  foliage,  or  want  of  detail  in  the 
shadows.  These  effects  are  mere  errors  of  manipulation,  and  chiefly  occur  when  the  plate 
has  had  insufficient  exposure  or  faulty  development,  and  are  not  due  to  the  lighting  of  the 
subject. — EDWARD  DUNMORE. 

The  student  should  note  distinctly  that,  however  astonishing  and  captivating  good  defini- 
tion and  detail  may  be  in  studies  of  foreground,  etc.,  in  the  general  landscape,  fine  broad 
effects  of  light  and  shade  will  supersede  all.  Mere  clean  mechanism  on  the  plate  grows 
monotonous,  and  will  always  succumb  to  the  sentiment  conveyed  to  the  mind  of  the  specta- 
tor by  representations,  photographically  less  perfect,  in  which  any  of  the  changing  effects  of 
light  and  shade  may  have  been  successfully  rendered.  The  artist  should  likewise  consider 
that  careful  and  discriminating  selection  will  make  itself  felt  in  this  as  in  every  other  descrip- 
tion of  subject,  and  must  not  go  out  with  his  camera  as  to  a  sort  of  photographic  battle,  in 
which  one  well-studied  picture  seems  not  to  be  the  desideratum,  but  quantity  not  quality  is 
sought  for.  Now,  the  truth  is,  that  one  little  bit  of  well-selected  foreground,  a  bank  with  a 
few  docks  and  thistles,  with  the  bright  sun-ray  glancing  from  the  tufted  grass  to  the  ivy. 
grown  stump  of  the  gnarled  pollard,  is  worth  a  hecatomb  of  such  things. — LAKE  PRICK. 


PHOTOGRAPHY    OUTSIDE.  257 

prominent  than  the  others,  and  to  which  all  parts  are  made  more  or  less 
subordinate.  By  a  careful  arrangement  of  the  lights  and  masses  of  light 
and  shade,  we  secure  the  prominence  due  to  each  object.  This  is  plainly 
exemplified  in  the  model  picture  given. 

321.  Sometimes  figures  are  introduced  with  good  effect  into  the  pic- 
ture, but  they  are  not  advantageous  unless  used  to  make  up  the  story, 
when  they  must  be  posed  and  placed  so  as  to  harmonize  with  all  the 
other  parts,  in  other  words,  be  one  of  the  arts  of  the  whole.     There  are 
times  when  they  will  give  life  and  snap  to  a  picture,  but  never  allow  a 
policeman  to  intrude  for.  such  a  purpose.     In  street  views  figures  are  al- 
lowable.   In  the  landscapes,  only  where  they  can  be  used  to  help  give  the 
idea  of  height  or  distance,  or  to  harmonize  in  some  way  subordinately 
with  the  rest  of  the  subject. 

322.  As  to  the  matter  of  exposure,  there  can  be  no  rule, — the  time  of 
day,  the  condition  of  the  light  and  the  atmosphere,  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
ject, the  wind,  and  what  not,  regulating  this  matter  largely.     Always 

321.  Do  not  introduce  figures  into  your  picture  unless  they  can  be  made  to  appear  a  part 
of  the  same,  or  to  belong  to  the  scene.     Many  a  photograph  that  would  have  been  faultless 
otherwise,  is  totally  destroyed  by  the  indiscriminate  introduction  of  one  or  more  figures 
which  are  entirely  out  of  harmony  with  the  scene,  and  only  mar  it. — JAMES  MULLEN. 

If  it  is  desired  to  produce  works  of  a  more  artistic  character,  in  which  various  masses  of 
buildings,  at  different  planes  of  distance  are  introduced,  less  dimensions  must  be  attempted. 
In  some  such  subjects,  as  for  instance,  views  of  Florence  looking  down  the  Arno,  of  Paris 
from  the  Seine,  etc.  ;  the  want  of  figures  in  the  picture  is  not  so  much  felt  as  when  the 
squares  and  streets  of  populous  cities  are  represented;  here,  if  anything  approaching  the 
appearance  of  the  originals  is  to  be  shown,  it  can  only  be  by  combining  in  the  picture  the  mov- 
ing panorama,  and  not  giving  a  Pompeian  aspect  to  the  most  crowded  and  busy  thorough- 
fares. For  the  first,  single  or  stopped-down  double  lenses  may  be  employed  indifferently ; 
the  resulting  pictures  will  be  distinguished  by  the  less  size  and  greater  definition  in  those 
taken  with  double  lenses ;  for  the  second  double  lenses  can  alone  be  used.  The  operator 
must  avoid  large  masses  of  shadow,  and  if  skill  is  shown,  pictures  of  ten  by  eight  inches 
maybe  thus  obtained,  not  but  that  very  considerable  difficulties  must  be  contended  with  and 
overcome ;  but  if  a  picture  of  this  class  of  subjects  is  to  be  presented  to  the  spectator  which 
shall  impress  him  with  the  aspect  of  the  original,  as  seen  in  nature,  it  is  to  this  treatment 
alone  we  must  look  for  success. — LAKE  PRICE. 

322.  Time  for  perfect  detail  in  the  shadows;  the  high-lights  will,  or  ought  to,  take  care 
of  themselves.     If  they  do  not,  if  the  resulting  photograph  gives  the  middle-  and  high-lights 
as  one  chalky  mass  of  intensity,  it  is  an  indication  that  your  chemicals  have  a  radical  fault 
which  must  be  remedied.     Your  bath  is  too  strong,  your  collodion  too  thick  or  not  properly 
iodized,  or  some  one  of  the  many  faults  exist  which  no  amount  of  skill  in  undertiming  or 
developing  can  correct.     Do  not  be  satisfied  with. this  sort  of  snow-flake  effect      It  is  certain 
that,  with  the  simplest  of  lenses  properly  stopped  down,  sufficient  exposure,  and  full  develop- 

17 


258  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

secure  enough,  and  if  the  wind  attempts  to  blow,  quickly  close  the  expo- 
sure, wait  until  it  is  over  its  unmannerly  freak,  and  then  expose  again. 
Often  the  foreground  needs  more  time  than  the  distance.  Regulate  this 
by  a  hinged  flap  or  shutter  on  the  front  of  your  camera,  by  means  of 
which  the  lens  may  be  shaded  at  will  to  suit  all  circumstances. 

323.  The  addition  of  clouds  to  a  landscape  cannot  be  too  highly  valued, 
but,  alas !  photography  is  too  often  unable  to  secure  them  with  the  average 

ment,  perfect  and  complete  gradations  of  tone,  leading  from  deep  shadow  up  to  pure  white 
in  the  sunshine,  can  be  caught,  provided  both  collodion  and  developer  are  in  harmonious 
working  order. — S.  R.  STODDARD. 

323.  All  clouds  can  be  photographed,  from  the  lowering  rain-cloud  up  to  the  sunny  regions 
of  the  cirrus,  those  multitudinous  and  apparently  motionless  lines  of  delicate  vapor  with 
which  the  blue  of  the  open  sky  is  commonly  streaked  and  speckled  after  some  days  of  fine 
weather ;  but  those  most  strongly  marked  in  outline,  and  having  the  most  favorable  contrast 
of  light  and  shade,  are  the  easiest  to  secure  on  the  plate  prepared  by  the  ordinarily  used  col- 
lodion process.  The  collodion  should  be  very  ripe,  that  is,  it  should  have  been  iodized  for 
many  months,  or,  if  newly  iodized  collodion  only  is  obtainable,  sufficient  tincture  of  iodine 
should  be  added  to  it  to  make  it  a  golden  sherry  color.  The  iron  developer  should  be  weak  ; 
about  eight  or  ten  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water  would  be  a  suitable  strength,  with  a  corre- 
sponding amount  of  acetic  acid  and  alcohol.  The  plate  should  be  new,  and  very  clean. 
Spots  and  stains  are  fatal  to  skies. 

Any  lens  will  do,  but  if  a  portrait  or  any  quick  one  is  employed,  it  should  be  stopped 
down.  The  difficulty  in  taking  skies  is  to  avoid  excess  of  light,  and  to  expose  quick 
enough  to  prevent  the  plate  fogging  all  over.  The  method  of  proceeding  is  as  follows: 
Prepare  and  excite  the  plate  in  the  usual  manner.  Expose,  for  a  bright  sky,  as  small  a  frac- 
tion of  a  second  as  you  can  manage  with  the  ordinary  cap  of  the  lens.  Carry  the  slide  to 
the  dark-room,  and  develop.  It  is  in  the  developing  that  the  most  judgment  is  required. 
In  a  matter  so  delicate  as  the  guessed  exposure  of  a  fraction  of  a  second,  in  which  one  ex- 
posure may  be  double  that  of  another  without  the  difference  being  noticed,  a  great  deal 
must  be  regulated  in  the  development.  Remember  that  the  darkest  parts  of  the  clouds 
should  be  represented  by  bare  glass  in  the  negative,  therefore,  after  the  developer  has  been 
thrown  on,  and  the  high-lights  and  succeeding  gradations,  almost  down  to  the  darkest,  have 
come  out,  pour  a  flood  of  water  over  the  plate,  and  wash  thoroughly.  The  negative  must 
now  be  treated  with  a  solution  of  iodine  in  iodide  of  potassium  and  water,  made  thus : 
water,  ten  ounces;  iodide  of  potassium,  five  grains;  tincture  of  iodine,  sufficient  to  produce 
a  pale  sherry  color.  This  is  poured  over  the  plate,  and  washed  off  again.  The  intensifica- 
tion must  now  be  commenced  with  pyrogallic  acid,  and  will  be  found,  if  the  clouds  are 
delicate  or  feebly  lighted,  to  be  an  operation  requiring  much  patience.  When  the  pyro 
becomes  discolored,  it  should  be  washed  off,  and  another  dose  of  the  iodine  applied,  after 
which  fresh  pyro  again,  and  so  on  alternately  until  the  requisite  intensity  is  attained. — H. 
P.  ROBINSON. 

It  is  generally  known  by  photographers  that  there  are  different  methods  of  producing 
cloud  effects  by  which  satisfactory  results  may  be  obtained.  Negatives  taken  from  natural 


PHOTOGRAPHY    OUTSIDE  259 

subject.  By  reference  to  the  model  picture,  their  value  will  be  seen. 
They  may  be  secured  separately  and  printed  in  oftentimes,  with  admira- 
ble effect.  As  a  usual  thing,  they  are  too  rapidly  moving  to  be  secured 
with  any  detail,  for  while  the  foreground  was  being  exposed,  they  would 
be  over-timed  and  entirely  lost.  Sometimes,  however,  this  is  not  so. 
They  must  be  treated  much  as  children  have  to  be  in  portraiture,  and 
taken  when  they  are  in  a  quiet  humor.  Reflections  in  water  are  always 
attractive  in  a  view.  The  water  should  be  perfectly  still,  and  the  light 
brilliant.  The  finest  reflections  occur  when  the  atmosphere  is  foggy,  but 

clouds,  if  tastefully  selected  and  printed  with  care,  add  greatly  to  the  picturesque  and 
artistic  finish  of  landscape  pictures.  It  may  happen  at  times,  that  out  of  a  whole  batch  of 
cloud  negatives  there  is  not  one  suitable  for  a  particular  picture  which  has  to  be  completed. 
I  have  for  some  years  past  practised  a  method  of  producing  cloud  effects  which  has  with 
me  proved  very  successful,  yielding  proofs  of  a  most  delicate  and  refined  character,  giving 
great  relief,  yet  in  which  there  is  nothing  harsh  to  attract  the  eye  from  the  subject,  being 
very  softly  blended,  and  producing  a  most  charming  effect  in  the  landscape  picture.  Procure 
a  sheet  of  finely-ground  glass  the  size  of  the  negative,  and,  having  previously  printed  a 
rough  copy  of  the  landscape,  place  it  under  the  ground-glass  laid  upon  a  table,  with  the 
rough  side  of  the  glass  upwards.  It  will  then  be  observed  that  the  picture  is  quite  visible, 
thus  offering  every  opportunity  of  arranging  the  clouds  in  any  shape  or  form  so  as  to 
harmonize  with  the  subject.  Now  proceed  to  lay  in  the  clouds  with  finely-ground  black-lead 
powder,  with  the  aid  of  a  small  sable  brush,  rubbing  in  those  parts  requiring  to  be  most 
opaque  with  a  small  piece  of  India-rubber,  afterwards  tracing  around  the  upper  edges  of  cloud- 
masses  with  a  lead-pencil,  and  gradually  softening  off  the  lower  portions  with  the  rubber. 
Take  particular  care  to  keep  the  whole  nearly  transparent.  A  little  sldll  combined  with 
taste  is  necessary  to  accomplish  this  with  neatness,  but  it  will  be  found  after  a  little  experi- 
ence that  some  most  excellent  resemblances  of  clouds  can  be  produced.  It  is  advisable  to 
make  the  sky  portion  of  the  negative  quite  opaque,  so  that  the  prints  will  remain  perfectly 
white  in  the  protected  parts,  which  are  to  be  printed  under  the  cloud-glass.  The  easiest  and 
quickest  way  to  accomplish  this  is  by  blocking  out  upon  the  reverse  side  with  black  varnish, 
tracing  within  half  an  inch  of  the  outline  of  the  landscape,  and  then  soften  off  the  edges 
with  a  little  gamboge  (also  upon  the  varnish  side,  if  necessary).  Should  any  parts  of  the 
picture  print  too  dark,  such  as  the  foliage  of  leaves,  they  may  be  remedied  by  working  in 
the  details  with  a  soft  lead-pencil  upon  the  varnished  side.  After  printing  from  the  negative 
in  the  usual  way,  place  the  print  under  the  cloud-glass  in  an  ordinary  printing-frame,  and 
printed  under  aired  sunlight  (previous  to  exposure).  The  frame  should  be  covered  with 
a  folded  sheet  of  yellow  paper,  and  placed  quite  stationary;  then,  slowly  drawing  the  paper 
from  the  top  of  the  frame,  exposing  the  sky  portion  to  the  light  (care  should  be  taken  to  go 
but  very  little  below  the  outline  of  the  landscape),  and  then  slowly  closing  it  again.  This 
may  be  repeated  several  times,  and  usually  takes  from  two  to  three  minutes,  so  as  to  print 
according  to  the  depth  required,  which  will  depend  upon  judgment  and  taste.  Good  results 
may  also  be  obtained  by  printing  in  the  shade,  and  reversing  the  cloud-glass,  so  placing  the 
rough  side  of  cloud-glass  next  to  the  print. — ALONZO  FERRARI. 


260  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

that  matters  little  if  the  light  is  of  proper  quality.    Admirable  views  may 
be  made  in  a  rain  storm — if  the  sun  shines. 

324.  In  conclusion,  a  word  as  to  the  dark-tent.  Any  light  enclosure 
set  at  a  proper  height  will  do,  large  enough  to  accommodate  the  hands 
during  the  necessary  manipulations  of  the  plate.  A  light  frame  of  wood, 
with  non-actinic  cloth  to  form  the  body,  is  all  that  is  needed.  The  form 
and  size  must  suit  your  purpose.  Have  sleeves  added  for  the  insertion  of 
the  arms,  and  a  peep-hole  to  see  what  you  are  doing  inside  is  also  essen- 
tial. Mr.  Robinson's  excellent  Pictorial  Effect  in  Photography  elaborates 
this  subject  to  a  charming  degree,  and  should  be  consulted  by  all  land- 
scape lovers. 

324.  To  dye  cloth  for  tents,  dark-room  windows,  etc.,  make  the  following  solutions: 
No.  1. — Acetate  of  Lead,    ..........       1  ounce. 

Water, 1  quart. 

No.  2. — Bichromate  of  Potash,   .........       1  ounce. 

Water, 1  quart. 

Dip  the  cloth  in  No.  1,  drain  a  little  (but  do  not  wring  it),  and  dip  in  No.  2;  it  takes  the 
color  instantly.  Kinse  slightly,  and  repeat  two  or  three  times.  If  the  cloth  is  new,  it  should 
be  washed  thoroughly,  to  remove  the  dressing,  before  dyeing.  Wash  or  rinse  out  all  loose 
color  and  hang  in  "the  sun  to  dry.  This  will  give  a  deep,  rich  lemon  color,  composed  of 
chrome-yellow,  and  perfectly  non-actinic. — J.  L.  GIHON. 


LESSON"  U. 

BRO  MO-GELATIN    EMULSION    WORK. 

325.  IT  has  long  been  the  hope  of  the  photographer,  and  the  amhition 
of  the  photo-inventor,  to  secure  some  means  of  producing  photographic 
negatives  without  the  aid  of  the  nitrate-hath,  which  would  not  only  end 
the  miseries  that  attend  upon  bath  or  "wet"  work,  but  which  would 
also  secure  greater  rapidity  of  exposure.     Many,  many  processes  have 
been  offered  with  more  or  less  success  in  producing  fair  results,  but  the 
great  process  desired  was  not  among  them.     It  would  be  out  of  place 
here  to  go  into  even  a  brief  history  of  the  matter.     Suffice  it  to  say,  that 
in  the  process  now  well  and  favorably  known  as  the  Gelatino-Bromide  or 
Bromo-Grelatin  Emulsion  process  is  found  the  one  that  up  to  date  comes 
nearest  to  what  is  wanted.     It  is  now  most  extensively  used  in  Europe, 
and  at  the  time  of  the  publication  of  this  work  is  becoming  largely  em- 
ployed in  America.     Our  photographers,  however,  are  not  yet  enough 
advanced  in  its  practice  to  give  us  much  literature  on  the  subject,  and 
therefore  free  use  is  made  of  what  kind  friends  abroad  have  published, 
with  the  hope  that  the  fraternity  here  will  follow  suit  when  they  become 
more  skilled,  which  indeed  they  have  already  begun  to  do. 

326.  Thus  far  the  new  process  has  been  more  extensively  applied  to 
out-door  work  than  to  portraiture,  and  the  two  drawings  annexed  speak 

326.  Among  the  many  advantages  of  gelatin  plates  over  wet  collodion,  such  as  their  being 
always  ready  for  use,  their  capacity  of  waiting  for  exposure  in  the  camera  without  risk  of 
spoiling,  their  ability  of  securing  an  image  in  dimly-lighted  places  by  an  indefinitely-pro- 
longed exposure,  the  convenience  of  postponing  the  development,  the  capability  of  correct- 
ing over-  and  under-exposure  by  the  management  of  the  developer,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
crowning  glory,  their  extreme  rapidity  ;  in  addition  to  all  these  advantages  there  is  one  other 
that  is  by  no  means  so  obvious;  this  will,  I  trust,  in  due  time  be  recognized,  namely,' the 
means  these  plates  supply  of  avoiding  the  known  defects  of  portrait  lenses.  Hitherto,  in  our 
anxious  desire  for  rapid  working,  we  have  been  obliged  to  tax  the  optician's  skill  to  the  ex- 
tremest  extent  to  make  up  for  our  deficiency  in  chemical  power.  Hence  lenses  have  been 
made  of  such  large  diameter,  and  of  such  short  focus,  that  they  can  rarely  be  satisfactorily 
employed  except  by  the  free  use  of  diaphragms.  The  advantage  of  the  costly  instrument  is 

(261  ) 


262 


WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 


FIG.  74. 


FIG.  75. 


more  for  the  advantages  of  it  in  the  former  line  than  anything  else  that 
can  be  said.  In  the  one  we  see  the  landscape  photographer  of  the  "  wet" 
persuasion  starting  out,  staff  in  hand, 
his  apparatus  laden  upon  his  bended 
back,  for  a  day's  pleasure.(?)  In  the 
other  is  the  advocate  of  emulsion 
pursuing  the  same  errand,  but  with 
his  apparatus  complete  carried  in 
one  hand,  with  plates  sufficient  for  a 
day's  work.  The  other  advantages 
besides  portability  are,  that  the  plates 
for  use  with  the  emulsion  processes 
may  be  prepared  in  the  studio,  and 
after  exposure  they  may  be  boxed 
and  developed  at  any  convenient 
season — months  hence,  if  necessary.  Again,  greater  rapidity  is  secured 
by  their  use — even  instantaneity — while  the  results  are  fully  equal  to 
those  by  the  "  wet "  process.  With  these  advantages  remembered,  then, 
let  the  process  be  considered. 

thus  materially  lost.  But  what  I  object  to  in  portrait  lenses  much  more  than  their  price,  is 
the  nature  of  the  definition  they  give,  even  at  their  best.  There  is  always  that  painful  ob- 
trusion of  the  optical  plane  where  the  exact  focus  is  determined.  Everything  before  and 
behind  this  plane  runs  so  rapidly  into  "  fuzziness  "  that  the  exactness  of  the  definition  where 
the  image  is  sharp  makes  the  absence  of  it  the  more  obvious.  We  have  for  years  been  cry- 
ing out  for  what  opticians  say  is  a  practical  impossibility — "depth  of  focus."  The  attempt 
to  obtain  a  "distributed  focus  "  by  the  patent  means  of  partially  unscrewing  the  back  lens 
instead  of  giving  increased  "depth,"  only  ends  by  producing  general  "muzziness." 

The  weakness  of  the  portrait  lens  is  never  so  much  seen  as  in  the  attempt  to  take  large  heads. 
This  was  particularly  shown  a  few  years  since  at  the  photographic  exhibition,  when  prizes 
were  offered  for  the  production  of  life-size  heads  taken  direct.  The  portraits  then  shown 
displayed  clearly  not  only  what  could  not  be  done,  but  also  what  should  not  be  attempted  ; 
and,  fortunately,  we  have  seen  none  of  these  enormities  since.  Yet,  so  long  as  we  needed 
to  take  babies,  nervous  people,  dogs,  and  other  animals  (and  these  often  in  an  indifferent 
light),  we  have  been  compelled  to  use  these  optically  and  artistically-imperfect  instruments 
because  our  plates  were  not  otherwise  sensitive  enough.  I  remember  some  twenty  years 
since,  when  Dallmeyer  brought  out  his  triplet  lenses,  using  them  for  portraiture.  I  was 
charmed  with  the  exquisite  nature  of  the  image ;  nothing  was  severely  sharp,  and  nothing 
was  out  of  focus.  The  optical  plane  was  there,  but  the  gradual  approach  to  it  and  the  gentle 
retiring  from  it  was  so  insensible  that  the  definition  was  perfectly  delightful  compared  to 
that  of  the  usual  portrait  lens.  But  the  slowness  of  the  instruments  compelled  me  to  aban- 
don them  for  studio  work.  Now,  however,  all  is  changed,  and  the  rapidity  of  our  plates  wiU 


BKOMO-GELATIN    EMULSION    WOKK.  263 

327.  As  it  is  the  policy  of  this  work  to  give  honor  to  whom  honor  is 
due,  be  it  known  then  that  the  skeleton  of  the  method  which  follows  is 
largely  made  up  from  the  best  paper  yet  published  on  the  subject,  which 
was  recently  presented  to  the  French  Photographic  Society  in  Paris  by 
Mons.  M.  Bascher,  while  the  notes  come  largely  from  contributors  to 
the  British  Journal  Almanac  and  the  Year- Book  of  Photography.  Thus  full 
instructions  are  given  in  every  branch  of  the  process  in  all  details. 
Doubtless  the  novice  will  find  it  most  economical  at  first  to  make  pur- 
chase of  his  plates,  or  at  least  the  sensitive  pellicle  with  which  to  make 
the  emulsion,  already  prepared,  as  plentifully  offered  in  the  market  of 
excellent  quality  by  a  number  of  American  manufacturers,  since  the 
manufacture  of  them  is  attended  by  so  many  difficulties  and  drawbacks. 
Were  nothing  else  in  the  way,  that  mule  of  all  ingredients,  gelatin,  must 
be  handled,  and  it  requires  knowledge  and  patience.  Get  acquainted 

permit  us  to  use  in  good  light,  and  on  reasonably-quiet  sitters,  this  superior  class  of  lens.  I 
therefore  strongly  counsel  professional  photographers  in  good  light  to  use  for  their  cabinet, 
promenade,  panel,  or  similar  portraits  the  rapid  rectilinear  or  the  symmetrical  lenses  ;  and 
to  keep  in  reserve,  to  be  used  only  on  special  occasions,  the  more  imperfect  though  quicker- 
working  portrait  lenses.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  say  that  by  using  smaller  diaphragms  the 
portrait  lens  can  have  its  objectionable  character  removed.  I  think  not;  the  image  is  cer- 
tainly improved,  but  it  is  apt  to  be  too  sharp  in  one  plane,  and  not  to  possess  that  general 
artistic  distribution  of  definition  the  other  lenses  give.  I  also  think  that  the  large  glasses 
of  the  portrait  lenses  furnish  greater  risk  of  admitting  diffused  light  in  the  camera — flatten- 
ing and  degrading  the  image  on  gelatin  plates — than  the  smaller  lenses. — JABEZ  HUGHES. 

327.  It  has  been  established  by  Captain  Abney  and  others  that  gelatino-bromide  of  silver 
emulsion  gains  in  sensitiveness  by  keeping.  It  has  not,  however,  been  sufficiently  taken 
into  consideration  what  a  very  important  factor  in  the  result  is  temperature. 

First.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  one  of  the  canons  of  gelatino-bromide  of  silver  emulsion 
manufacture  that  the  sensitiveness  (times  being  equal)  is  directly  as  the  temperature  at  which 
the  emulsion  is  kept.  At  40°  F.  it  will  be  less  sensitive  than  an  emulsion  kept  at  80°  F.  The 
cause  is  not  far  to  seek.  At  the  low  temperature,  the  sensitive  particles  are  held  tightly  by 
the  medium  which  prevents  their  free  motion.  As  the  temperature  rises  a  loosening  takes 
place,  which,  permitting  freer  motion,  allows  scope  for  chemical  or  molecular  changes. 

Second.  This  question  of  temperature  has  another  important  aspect.  It  has  a  material 
influence  on  the  gelatinizing  property  of  the  gelatin.  A  second  canon  is  this  :  The  gelatiniz- 
ing quality  is  permanently  affected  inversely  as  the  temperature  at  which  the  gelatin  is  kept. 
The  higher  the  temperature,  the  lower  the  gelatinizing  quality  induced  permanently.  Gela- 
tin kept  in  a  fluid  state  at  a  high  temperature  passes  into  the  condition  known  as  meta-gela- 
tin,  which  has  no  setting  property.  Possibly  pure  meta-gelatin  is  favorable  to  sensitiveness, 
as  allowing  the  particles  of  silver  bromide  freer  play.  But  meta-gelatin  is  soluble  in  cold 
water,  and  probably  could  not  be  used  by  itself  for  emulsion  work,  as  it  would  wash  away 
under  the  developer.  If  it  could  be  got  into  collodion,  it  might  solve  the  problem  of  rendering 


264 


WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 


with  it  in  harness  first.     Once  having  mastered  the  matter  of  exposure, 
and  especially  of  development,  it  will  not  be  hard  to  do  more. 

328.  PREPARATION  OF  THE  EMULSION. — In  -the  dark-room,  lighted  by 
ruby-colored  glass,  melt  separately,  over  a  water-bath,  using  as  mild  a 

collodion  as  rapid  as  gelatin.  I  have  not  the  time  to  make  the  experiments  myself  which 
would  be  necessary.  Meta-gelatin  is  probably  (he  chief  mechanical  cause  of  the  increase  of 
sensitiveness  in  gelatin  emulsion.  Being  intimately  mixed  with  the  gelatin,  it  renders  the 
film  more  pervious  to  the  developer  by  being  washed  out,  and  yet  perhaps  not  carrying  away 
with  it  the  particles  of  silver  bromide  acted  upon  by  the  light.  There  is  an  interesting  field 
for  experiment  in  this  direction.  If  the  particles  of  silver  bromide  are  washed  out  as  well  as 
the  meta-gelatin,  this  may  explain  the  want  of  density  found  in  some  highly  sensitive  films. 
Third.  Yet,  again,  has  temperature  an  important  influence  in  gelatin  work.  A  third 
canon  is  this :  The  putrefactive  and  fermentative  conditions  of  gelatin  in  the  moist  state  are 
induced  directly  as  the  temperature  at  which  the  moist  gelatin  is  kept  and  placed,  or 
manipulated,  in  circumstances  favorable  to  the  admission  of  germs  from  the  atmosphere. 
Dr.  Maddox — who  has  distinguished  himself  as  a  pioneer  in  gelatino-bromide  of  silver 
emulsion  work — has  been  even  more  distinguished  in  microphotography.  I  would  suggest 
to  him  a  fertile  field  in  the  examination  and  photographic  delineation  of  gelatin  emulsion 
which  has  been  kept,  and  to  which  the  atmosphere  has  had  access. 

An  emulsion  free  from  living  organisms — bacteria,  vibrios,  etc. — will  be  found  a  sine  qua 
non  for  good  work.  I  am  inclined  to  think,  if  the  microscope  were  used  more  freely  in  the 
investigation  of  emulsions,  we  should  find  that  some  of  the  puzzling  difficulties  of  gelatino- 
bromide  of  silver  might  be  traced  to  gelatin  in  process  of  putrefaction  or  fermentation,  in 
consequence  of  having  been  kept  without  the  addition  of  an  antiseptic.  As  last  words  in 
regard  to  this  subject  of  temperature,  I  would  say,  gelatin  boiled  is  gelatin  spoiled. — DUN- 
CAN C.  DALLAS. 

328.  Dr.  J.  Nicol  gives  a  description  of  a  very  convenient  arrangement,  devised  by  Mr. 
J.  G.  Tunny,  of  Edinburgh,  for  keeping  the  various  vessels  containing  emulsions  at  the 

proper  temperature.  This  he  has  called  a  "  hot- 
water  cabinet."  It  will  be  seen  from  the  accom- 
panying sketch.  Fig.  76,  that  the  cabinet  consists 
of  a  cylinder  of  japanned  tin  plate,  nine  inches  deep 
and  thirteen  inches  in  diameter.  In  the  top  are  six 
circular  holes  of  various  sizes,  suitable  for  the 
vessels  intended  to  be  kept  warm,  including  one 
funnel,  one  or  more  measures,  several  beakers,  ana 
the  emulsion  bottle.  In  each  of  the  circular  holes 
is  inserted  and  firmly  soldered  a  tin  cylinder,  closed 
at  the  bottom,  and  of  such  a  length  as  just  to  hold 
the  article  for  which  it  is  intended.  The  mouth  of 
each  of  the  cylinders  projects  sufficiently  above  the 
top  of  the  cylindrical  body  of  the  cabinet  to  form  a 
shoulder  on  which  to  slip  a  cap  or  cover,  whereby 
light  may  be  excluded  from  all  or  any  particular 
one  at  will.  Immediately  in  front  of  the  funnel-holder — which  is,  of  course,  not  a  cylinder 


FIG.  76. 


BROMO-GELATIN    EMULSION    WORK.  265 

heat  as  possible  (that  of  a  lamp  whose  light  is  hid  is  the  best),  the  follow- 
ing two  preparations : 

A.— Water, 120  parts. 

Nelson's  Gelatin,  No.  1 15      " 

Bromide  of  Ammonium, 7      u 

Bromide  of  Zinc,          ........         1  part. 

B. — Water, 30  parts. 

Nitrate  of  Silver, 12    " 

These  two  solutions  being  made,  pour,  drop  by  drop,  constantly  agi- 
tating, the  second  solution  into  the  first.     Allow  the  mixture  to  remain 

but  a  cone — a  portion  of  the  side  of  the  cabinet  is  cut  away,  and  covered  by  a  sliding  shutter 
of  tin.  This  is  intended  to  receive  the  bottle  or  vessel  into  which  the  emulsion  is  being 
filtered,  and  a  half  cylinder  passing  behind  the  bottle  and  reaching  up  to  the  funnel-holder 
keeps  the  whole  water-tight.  There  is  also  a  small  tube,  in  which  may  be  inserted  a 
thermometer  for  the  proper  regulation  of  the  temperature.  For  all  or  most  of  the  operations 
connected  with  the  preparation  of  gelatin  plates  I  cannot  imagine,  and  certainly  have  never 
seen,  anything  so  exceedingly  convenient.  By  means  of  a  small  gas-  or  lamp-flame,  the 
temperature  of  the  water  may  be  maintained  at  any  required  degree,  and  if  covered  with  a 
jacket  of  thick  felt  or  other  suitable  non-conducting  substance,  an  almost  uniform  temperature 
may  be  kept  up  for  many  hours  without  any  flame  at  all. 

In  boiling  the  gelatin  emulsion ,  it  is  of  great  importance  that  the  vessel  containing  it  should 
be  well  covered  with  water  to  enable  the  emulsion  itself  to  boil  thoroughly,  and  in  order  to 
effect  this  some  arrangement  is  required  to  prevent  the  bottle  or  flask 
from  turning  upside  down.  To  get  over  this  difficulty  a  heavy  glass 
bottle  is  often  used,  much  to  the  discomfort  of  the  worker,  who  generally 
breaks  four  such  bottles  out  of  every  five.  To  those  who  require  a  simple 
plan  of  steadying  a  flask,  I  recommend  the  accompanying  sketch  of  an 
arrangement  which  is  easily  made  and  answers  perfectly.  It  consists 
simply  of  a  collar  formed  from  a  piece  of  stout  sheet-lead  bent  to  the 
proper  shape  of,  and  made  half  an  inch  deeper  than,  the  glass  flask,  and 
also  pierced  with  several  holes  to  allow  the  water  to  flow  easily  through 
it.  When  placed  in  the  boiling  water  the  "  collar  "  prevents  the  flask 
from  turning  over,  which,  if  not  filled  too  full,  is  also  hindered  by  its 
buoyancy  from  touching  the  bottom  of  the  outer  vessel.  Setting  aside 
the  question  of  breakage,  I  may  observe  that  an  ordinary  chemical  flask  should  be  always 
used  in  preference  to  a  bottle,  as  by  its  use  the  emulsion  is  heated  far  more  quickly,  and  can, 
without  risk,  be  immediately  cooled  under  the  tap  when  the  boiling  is  completed.  Thus  a 
great  saving  of  time,  and  sometimes  patience,  is  effected. — H.  MANFIELD. 

Thinking  that  something  more  mechanical  than  the  rougher  method,  mostly  recommended, 
of  adding  silver  to  the  bromized  gelatin  and  then  shaking  your  arms  off,  was  required,  I 
set  about  making  a  simple  piece  of  apparatus ;  and,  as  it  answers  the  purpose  admirably,  I 
give  a  rough  sketch  of  it,  the  sizes  of  which  can  be  altered  to  suit  requirements.  The  frame, 
A,  is  made  of  wood,  the  base,  B,  of  something  heavier  to  keep  it  steady  when  in  use.  Wood 
would  do  if  loaded  with  lead  underneath.  The  large  and  small  band-pulleys  are  likewise  of 
wood ;  the  stirring-rod,  c,  is  made  of  ivory,  as  well  as  the  toothed  piece  on  the  bottom  This 


266 


WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 


FIG.  78. 


over  a  very  mild  water-bath  for  three  days.  Now  pour  the  solution  into 
a  glass  dish,  which  is  to  be  placed  in  as  cold  a  place  as  possible ;  in  sum- 
mer, ice  is  necessary.  When  the  bromized  gelatin  has  become  very  firm, 

stirrer,  used  in  conjunction  with  an  injector,  gives  a  beautifully  fine-grained, creamy  emulsion, 
and  by  using  an  India-rubber  ball  on  the  tube,  r,  you  can  force  the  silver  solution  into  the 

gelatin  in  the  form  of  a  fine  spray,  or  drop  by 
drop,  as  you  think  fit.  A  word  on  frilling,  one 
of  the  chief  causes  of  which  I  believe  to  be 
dirty  glasses — that  is  to  say  chemically  dirty — 
by  allowing  too  long  a  time  to  elapse  between 
the  cleaning  and  coating  of  the  plates.  I  quite 
agree  with  a  plan,  no  doubt,  adopted  by  many — 
that  is,  to  rummage  up  all  old  plates  and  have  one 
good  wash  up,  after  which  they  should  be  packed 
up  and  stored  away  for  future  use.  But  it  is  a 
great  mistake  to  coat  plates  even  twenty-four 
hours  after  such  washing  without  a  preliminary 

polish  up.  The  plan  I  adopt  is  this :  while  the  gelatin  emulsion  is  soaking  I  look  out  my  dozen 
or  two  plates,  as  the  case  may  be,  dust  on  a  little  fine  tripoli  powder  on  the  side  to  be  coated, 
and  polish  it  off  with  a  cloth  I  keep  for  the  purpose,  and  which  is  pretty  well  charged  with 
the  powder.  It  will  be  found  that  this  gives  a  tooth  to  the  plate  that  gelatin  emulsion  will 
stick  to  with  great  tenacity.  A  quarter  of  an  hour  is  quite  sufficient  to  go  over  two  dozen 
plates.  This  precaution  taken,  coupled  with  the  use  of  chrome-alum  in  the  emulsion,  I  will 
warrant  to  prevent  frilling. — S.  KOGERS. 

In  order  to  prevent  misunderstanding,  I  repeat,  that  the  method  of  preparing  exceedingly 
sensitive  emulsions  by  boiling  and  by  treatment  with  ammonia  give,  as  I  have  shown  in  my 
work,  The  Theory  and  Practice  of  the  Gelatin- Emulsion  Process,  excellent  results.  For  the 
practical  photographer,  however,  and  the  manufacturer  on  a  large  scale,  I  strongly  recom- 
mend the  method  of  long-continued  digesting  at  a  gentle  heat,  and  I  will  accordingly 
give  a  short  resume  of  the  directions  which  I  have  laid  down  at  the  end  of  the  above- 
mentioned  work.  Dissolve  24  grammes  of  potassium  bromide,  and  from  30  to  45  grammes 
of  gelatin,  in  300  cubic  centimetres  of  water  •  also  30  grammes  of  silver  nitrate  in  300  cubic 
centimetres  of  water,  and  mix  the  two  solutions  at  a  temperature  of  about  40°  C.  This 
emulsion  must  then  be  digested  over  a  water-bath,  at  a  temperature  of  35°  C.  If  a  less 
sensitive,  but  clear  working,  emulsion  be  required,  one  which  shall  be  rich  in  contrasts — 
as,  for  example,  architectural  photographs,  reproductions,  etc. — the  digesting  must  be  ex- 
tended over  twelve  hours.  This  emulsion  will  be  equally  sensitive,  or  even  twice  as  sensitive, 
as  wet  collodion  plates.  It  is  to  be  thoroughly  recommended  in  cases  where  a  moderate 
degree  of  sensitiveness  is  sufficient.  It  should  be  at  hand  in  every  studio,  and  is  often  pre- 
ferred by  landscape  photographers  to  a  more  sensitive  emulsion.  The  same  mixture,  digested 
for  three  days,  gives  an  emulsion  specially  adapted  for  portrait  photographs.  With  a  suit- 
able developer — particularly  pyrogallic — it  works  very  soft  and  delicate.  This  emulsion 
ought  to  serve  the  principal  wants  of  the  practical  photographer,  To  obtain  still  greater 
sensitiveness  and  softness,  the  digesting  at  35°  C.  should  be  extended  continuously  for  five 
days,  and,  at  nearly  the  last  moment,  from  one  to  two  per  cent,  of  ammonia  should  be  added, 


BKOMO-GELATIN    EMULSION    WOKK. 


267 


cut  it  into  pieces  with  an  ivory  knife,  and  place  these  pieces  in  a  canvas 
bag,  as  recommended  by  Messrs.  Wratten  and  Wainright.  Strongly  press 
with  the  fingers,  to  force  the  gelatin  through  the  meshes  of  the  tissue, 
and  allow  the  small  fragments  to  fall  into  a  dish  of  cold  water.  Stir 
quickly  with  a  glass  rod;  then  pour  the  whole  on  a  sieve  placed  in  the 
upper  portion  of  a  cylindrical  vessel,  and  entering  into  it  to  the  depth  of 

and  the  digesting  carried  on  for  another  half-hour.  In  this  way,  it  is  readily  possible  to 
prepare  two  differently  working  emulsions  from  the  same  mixture.  The  first  portion  can 
be  poured  off  at  the  end  of  the  first  twelve  hours'  digesting,  and  put  on  one  side ;  the  re- 
mainder being  still  kept  cooking.  I  recommend  the  owners  of  large  laboratories,  as  .well  as 
amateurs,  to  keep  both  these  kinds  of  emulsion  in  stock.  The  sensitive  emulsion  can  be  used 
in  the  studio ;  the  less  sensitive,  in  the  open  air. — DR.  J.  M.  EDER. 

If  the  same  quantities  of  chemicals  are  weighed  up  each  time,  it  would  be  well  to  have 
weights  made  containing  the  exact  number  of  ounces  and  grains  required  of  each  article 
used. 

Two  simple  means  of  producing  the  bromide  of  silver  in  the  needful  state  of  fine  subdi- 
vision are  as  follows : — The  first  is  a  glass  funnel,  with  its  end  drawn  to  an  exceedingly  fine 
point.  This  is  placed  in  a  retort  stand,  and  the  nitrate  of  silver  will  be  projected  into  the 
jar  containing  the  bromide  and  gelatin  solution.  The  whole  can  easily  be  mixed  with  any- 
thing found  most  convenient,  such  as  a  strip  of  glass  or  wood,  a  salad-fork,  or  one  of  those 
wooden  mixers  used  in  the  cafes  for  the  chocolate-pot.  The  other  plan  is  the  spray  producer. 
This  is  easily  made  with  a  bottle,  a  good  cork,  two  pieces  of  glass  tubing,  a  piece  of  India- 
rubber  tubing,  and  a  valve-ball  pear-shaped.  (See  Fig.  79.) 

In  cooking  the  emulsion,  a  good,  trustworthy,  well-glazed  stoneware  jar,  with  a  lid  or 
cover,  will  be  found  most  useful,  and  a  saucepan  or  boiler  with  a  well-fitting  lid  and  large 
enough  to  hold  the  jar;  also  a  piece  of  wood  to 
fit  loosely  into  the  saucepan.  This  keeps  the  jar 
from  the  bottom  of  the  pan,  which,  when  the  jar 
is  in  it,  should  only  be  half  filled  with  hot  water. 
When  cooked  sufficiently,  the  emulsion  is  poured 
to  set  in  a  white,  flat-bottomed  porcelain  dish 
placed  in  a  zinc  box  with  a  deep  cover,  the  whole 
fitting  in  a  wooden  box,  which  has  also  a  deep 
cover  fitting  into  a  rebate  set  all  around  the  out- 
side of  the  wooden  box.  The  zinc  dish  is  made 
with  two  supports,  so  that  the  porcelain  dish  is 
from  one  and  a  half  to  two  inches  from  the  bot- 
tom. This  space  in  hot  weather  is  filled  with 

crushed  ice  and  nitrate  of  potash.  There  is  also  a  little  tube  of  zinc  passing  through  the 
two  boxes.  To  this  is  attached  an  India-rubber  tube  with  a  brass  top  to  run  off  the  waste 
water.  In  cool  weather,  nitrate  of  potash  and  water  will  suffice.  Pieces  of  ice  placed  in  the 
cool  emulsion  will  help  the  setting.  A  piece  of  flat  ebonite,  about  five  inches  by  two  inches, 
filed  down  to  a  sharp  edge  at  one  end  and  a  hole  pierced  at  the  other  to  hang  it  up  by,  is 
most  useful  to  scrape  up  the  set  emulsion  with. 

For  breaking  up  the  emulsion  a  canvaa  cloth  may  be  used  ;    but  any  mechanical  means 


FIG.  79. 


268 


WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 


FIG.  80. 


FIG.  81. 


about  seven  centimeters  (two  and  three-quarter  inches).     The  water-  will 
fall  into  the  vessel  and  the  gelatin  will  remain  on  the  sieve.     Pour  plenty 

that  does  the  same  without  so  much  handling  is  better.     A  large  zinc  tube,  silver-coated, 

with  a  pierced  plate  at  one  end  and  a 
wooden  plunger  to  fit  the  same  (Fig.  80), 
has  done  good  service.  It  is  placed  in 
a  large  jar  partly  filled  with  cold  water 
and  the  emulsion  forced  through.  There 
are  three  knobs  or  feet  to  keep  the  strainer  part  from  touching  the  bottom  of  the  jar,  and 
this  allows  the  emulsion  to  come  through. 

For  washing  the  emulsion  many  plans  are  recommended,  but  they  all  are  on  the  same 
principle — a  means  whereby  the  emulsion  can  soak  awhile  and  then  drain  and  again  soak 
and  drain.  The  finer  the  emulsion  is  broken  up  the  less  washing 
is  needed,  and  excess  of  washing  certainly  causes  a  thin  image, 
although  a  very  sensitive  plate  is  produced.  During  the  summer, 
a  difficulty  is  found  by  many  in  obtaining  water  sufficiently  cold. 
An  apparatus  like  Fig.  81  then  becomes  an  absolute  necessity.  A 
zinc  cylinder  and  lid  fitting  into  a  groove  or  rebate  and  some  or- 
dinary "compo,"  one-fourth  or  three-eighths  piping  twisted  into 
coils,  crushed  ice,  and  nitrate  of  potash  is  thrown  into  the  cylinder. 
The  water  enters  from  the  top  and  is  considerably  reduced  in  tem- 
perature before  it  passes  out  at  the  other  end.  I  do  not  know  that 
it  matters  which  way  the  water  enters.  The  washing-trough  con- 
taining the  emulsion  should  be  close  to  the  cooler. 

For  filtering,  a  good  wash-leather  well  cleaned  from  "dressing," 
a  china  funnel,  a  jar,  and  a  tin  or  zinc  cylinder  (Fig.  82)  to  hold 
hot  water  are  required.  It  is  advisable  to  filter  twice  and  have  two  leathers  and  two  funnels. 
The  lip  is  for  the  purpose  of  adding  more  hot  water,  and  the  tap  to  take  off"  the  chilled 
water.  The  tin  is  made  to  fit  the  funnel,  and  has  a  rim  at  the  bottom 
to  rest  on  the  shoulders  of  the  jar,  long  enough  to  prevent  the  end  of 
the  funnel  coming  in  contact  with  foreign  matter  when  placed  on  the 
table. 

After  filtration,  it  is  well  to  put  the  emulsion  aside  for  twenty-four 
hours  (or  it  can  be  used  at  once).  A  good  plan  is  to  have  a  series  of 
ten-ounce,  lipped  stoneware  bottles,  using  a  ten-  or  twelve-ounce 
measure  and  a  funnel  to  fill  the  bottles.  By  this  means  of  measuring, 
none  of  the  emulsion  is  lost.  The  bottles  are  then  covered  with  a 
piece  of  tough,  non-actinic  paper,  kept  in  position  with  an  India-rub- 
ber band,  taken  into  a  cool  place,  and  when  thoroughly  set,  about 
half  an  ounce  of  methylated  spirit  is  poured  on  (this  can  be  used  over 
and  over  again  if  kept  from  the  light).  The  emulsion  will  now  re- 
main good  for  a  considerable  time,  but  if  it  be  intended  to  keep  the 
emulsion,  it  is  better  to  make  it  into  pellicle  d  la  Kennett.  You  and 
the  pellicle  can  then  defy  summer  and  winter,  heat  and  cold. — ARCHER 
CLA.RKE. 
My  emulsion  filter  is  very  simple  and  easily  made,  and  is  illustrated  by  the  annexed 


FIG.  82. 


BROMO-GELATIN    EMULSION    WORK.  269 

of  water  into  the  sieve  until  the  whole  of  the  gelatin  is  covered.  Throw 
away  the  water  in  the  vessel,  renew  three  times  this  washing  operation, 
and  drain  carefully;  now  take  the  gelatin  with  a  horn-spoon  and  put  it 
in  a  precipitating  glass  two-thirds  filled  with  inethylic  alcohol.  Continue 
this  washing  until  the  fragments  of  gelatin  are  completely  hardened, 
which  it  is  easy  to  ascertain  from  the  peculiar  noise  which  they  make 
when  stirred.  l$ow  with  a  horn-for'k  spread  these  small  emulsion  pearls 
on  a  glass  plate,  which  has  previously  been  rubbed  with  a  tuft  soaked  in 

diagram,  Pig.  83.     B  is  a  tin  funnel,  with  its  spout  cut  off  to  about  an  inch  in  length;  A 
is  a  glass  funnel,  with  quite  a  long  spout,  so  as  to  reach  nearly  to  the  bottom        FlG 
of  the  bottle,  or  dish,  filtered  into;  a  rubber  bottle-stopper,  c,  that  fits  the  neck 
of  the  tin  funnel,  B,  is  perforated  with  a  hole  to  fit  the  spout  of  the  glass  funnel, 
A,  and  they  are  all  put  tightly  together,  as  shown  in  the  diagram.     When  in 
use,  the  spout  of  the  glass  funnel,  A,  is  fitted  quite  tightly  with  a  wad  of  filtering- 
cotton  previously  wet  with  alcohol,  and  rinsed  with  distilled  water,  and  the 
space  between  the  tin  funnel,  B,  and  the  glass  funnel,  A,  is  filled  with  water 
at  110°  F.— JAY  DENSMORE. 

Bromide  of  ammonium  should  be  as  nearly  as  possible  neutral.  It  is  usually 
more  or  less  acid,  even  though  otherwise  pure,  and  frequently  becomes  strongly 
acid  by  keeping.  It  is  then  quite  unfit  for  use,  and  will  not  give  good  results  unless  almost 
neutral.  Since  further  extensive  experiment,  the  writer  has  arrived  at  the  conclusion 
that  on  the  whole  it  is  better  to  use  bromide  of  potassium.  The  latter  is  often  alkaline, 
but  may,  without  much  difficulty,  be  obtained  neutral,  and  is  free  from  tendency  to  alter. 
Nelson's  No.  1  photo,  gelatin  unfortunately  varies  much  in  different  samples.  It  should  be 
absolutely  free  from  the  faintest  smell  or  taste,  and  should  dissolve  clear,  bright,  and  nearly 
colorless.  Samples  good  for  this  purpose  usually  contain  a  very  slight  trace  of  HC1.  Nitrate 
of  silver  is  usually  (if  good)  slightly  acid,  with  excess  of  nitric  acid.  It  may  be  soused,  but 
the  writer  has  recently  found  that  better  results  are  obtained  if  the  silver  solution  be  neutral- 
ized with  carbonate  of  soda.  A  slight  excess  does  no  harm,  as  the  resulting  trace  of  carbonate 
of  silver  is  converted  into  bromide;  indeed,  an  emulsion  may  be  made  by  mixing  washed 
carbonate  of  silver  with  a  soluble  bromide.  The  uses  of  neutralizing  the  silver  are  twofold. 
One  is,  that  as  the  amount  of  acidity  of  AgN03  varies  with  different  samples,  it  insures  the 
same  conditions  in  all  cases ;  the  other  is,  that  the  presence  of  nitric  acid  in  emulsion  pro- 
duces a  tendency  to  green  and  pink  discolorations  in  the  finished  negative. — W.  WILSON. 

When  the  gelatin  emulsion  is  flowed  over  a  glass  plate,  and  does  not  set  for  a  long  time, 
though  the  temperature  of  the  air  and  of  the  plate  is  not  very  high,  place  the  plate  on  a 
cold  metal  or  stone  slab  (10°  C).  If  that  produces  no  effect,  the  emulsion  has  been  spoiled, 
either  by  continued  cooking  at  a  great  heat  (60°  to  100°  C.),  or  by  repeated  alternately 
melting  and  solidifying,  the  latter  being  specially  injurious  when  the  gelatin  is  of  inferior 
quality.  For  this  reason  it  is  better  not  to  keep  the  stock  of  gelatin  emulsion  warm,  but  to 
plunge  the  flask  at  once  into  cold  water.  When  gelatin  is  heated  continuously  for  a  long 
time  with  ammonia,  it  loses  its  property  of  solidifying,  and  the  same  happens  to  an  emulsion 
digested  with  more  than  five  per  cent,  of  ammonia.  The  best  means  to  put  it  right  again 
is  to  add  about  half  its  quantity  of  the  original  gelatin.  By  long  keeping,  the  gelatin  will 


270  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

benzole  arid  wax  ;  thoroughly  dry  without  using  heat ;  this  requires  about 
twenty  hours.  At  the  end  of  this  time  detach  the  emulsion  from  the 
plate  with  a  paper-knife,  or  simply  with  the  palm  of  the  hand,  place  it  on 
a  sheet  of  black  paper,  and  then  in  small  pasteboard  boxes,  in  which  it 
may  be  kept  for  an  indefinite  time  if  not  exposed  to  dampness  or  light. 

329.  MANNER  OF  SPREADING  THE  GELATIN  ON  THE  PLATE. — First  cover 
the  plates  which  are  to  receive  the  gelatin  with  a  thin  coating  of  albumen : 

Water, 500  parts. 

White  of  Egg 20     " 

to  which  you  add  a  solution  of  chrome-alum  in  sufficient  quantity  to  im- 
part a  rather  dark-bluish  tint.  Allow  this  first  coating  to  thoroughly  dry, 

often  putrefy,  and  then  it  becomes  a  fluid  of  its  own  accord,  and  loses  the  power  of  solidify- 
ing. This  can  be  prevented  by  adding  from  one  to  two  per  cent,  of  salicylic  acid  or  of 
thymol  dissolved  in  five  cubic  centimetres  of  alcohol  for  every  one  hundred  cubic  cen- 
timetres of  gelatin.  Separation  of  the  film  from  the  glass  during  development,  formation 
of  bubbles,  protrusion  of  the  layer  of  gelatin  over  the  edge  of  the  plate,  production  of 
creases,  distortion  and  tearing  of  the  negative  image — all  these  defects  are  due  to  the  em- 
ployment of  too  soft  a  gelatin  ;  by  using  collotype  gelatin  they  may  be  avoided.  The  same 
effect  is  produced  when  the  emulsion  contains  a  considerable  amount  of  gum-arabic.  It 
may  be  cured  by  cleaning  the  glass  with  a  weak  solution  (1 : 200)  of  soluble  glass,  which 
causes  the  gelatin  to  adhere  more  firmly  ;  coating  the  edges  of  the  plate  with  a  varnish  of 
caoutchouc  is  also  a  remedy.  A  complete  cure  is  obtained  by,  previous  to  developing,  dip- 
ping the  plates  for  about  five  minutes  in  a  saturated  solution  of  alum  in  water,  followed  by 
thorough  rinsing.  According  to  Chardon,  it  suffices  to  dip  the  plates  in  alcohol,  and  only 
to  develop  afterwards.  Light-colored  spots,  without  any  sharp  outline  in  the  negative,  may 
be  attributed  to  some  fatty  substance  in  the  gelatin  ;  the  spots  may  be  got  rid  of,  and  the 
silver  bromide  plates  rendered  homogeneous,  by  filtering  the  gelatin  several  times  through 
filter  paper. — W.  P.  BOLTON. 

329.  For  coating  and  drying  plates  my  levelling-board  is  three  feet  by  two  feet  and  six  inches, 
one  and  a  quarter  inch  thick,  with  two  stout  battens  crossways  of  the  wood  underneath.  This 
requires  to  be  pretty  stout  and  rigid,  and  made  of  good  dry  timber.  Across  the  surface  there 
are  fastened  strips  of  wood  half  an  inch  square  and  at  three-inch  intervals.  These  are  sim- 
ply guides  in  the  process  of  levelling :  a  lid,  made  as  light  as  possible,  but  light-tight,  and 
of  sufficient  dimensions  to  cover  the  entire  board,  with  a  flange  sufficiently  deep  (say  three 
inches)  to  cover  the  board-plates  and  for  the  lower  edge  to  rest  upon  the  table. 

To  level  the  plates,  make  a  lot  of  little  common  clay  cylinders  by  rolling  the  clay  into 
lengths  of  a  few  inches  and  about  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  cutting  it  up  into  about 
three-quarter  inch  lengths  ;  three  of  these  pieces  of  clay  are  used  to  each  plate.  The  pieces 
of  clay  are  placed  on  the  leveller's  board  at  such  a  distance  as  to  suit  the  size  of  plate,  and 
on  each  piece  of  clay  I  press  a  gun-wad  ;  upon  these  the  glass  rests.  A  circular  spirit-level, 
or  two  ordinary  spirit-levels  placed  at  right  angles  upon  the  plate,  enables  you  to^see  which 
way  the  plate  requires  pressing  down  upon  the  clay  supports  to  set  it  perfectly  level.  I  have 
tried  all  sorts  of  means  of  levelling  the  plates,  but  find  this  the  best  and  most  simple  ;  a  little 


BROMO-GELATIN    EMULSION    WORK.  271 

then  spread  over  it  by  the  aid  of  a  bent  glass  rod  the  gelatin  emulsion, 
which  has  first  been  dissolved  over  a  water-bath  at  a  very  moderate  heat, 
and  in  ten  per  cent,  of  ordinary  water  slightly  alcoholized.  Some  add  to 
the  emulsion  a  small  quantity  of  chrome-alum  to  preserve  the  adherence; 
others,  a  few  drops  of  ammonia  to  increase  the  sensitiveness.  Thoroughly 

practice  will  enable  you  to  level  the  plates  rapidly  and  perfectly.  I  never  exceed  half  an 
hour  in  levelling  sixteen  plates. 

Coating  the  plates :  During  the  time  I  am  levelling  the  plates.  I  have  one  of  the  pots  of 
emulsion  placed  in  some  hot  water  in  the  "  laving  can  "  over  my  gas-burner,  with  just  suf- 
ficient gas  to  keep  the  water  hot,  but  not  to  boil — say  at  a  temperature  of  130°  or  a  little 
more.  By  the  time  I  have  levelled  my  plates,  the  emulsion  will  be  melted  and  heated  up  to 
the  same  temperature  as  the  surrounding  water.  Now  commences  the  dark-lantern  business. 
My  lantern  is  a  wooden  box,  twelve  inches  every  way,  the  front  consisting  of  two  panes  of 
glass,  which  slide  in  grooves,  and  are  sufficiently  long  to  be  easily  taken  hold  of  and  lifted 
out.  The  one  glass  is  ordinary  sheet,  coated  on  one  side  with  negative  varnish,  containing 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  aurine  to  make  it  a  tolerably  deep  yellow  ;  the  other  glass  is  ordinary 
ruby.  The  slides  are  arranged  to  leave  one  inch  space  between  the  two  glasses  ;  a  paraffine 
lamp  is  placed  inside  the  box,  which  is  provided  with  a  good-sized  chimney,  such  as  are  used 
for  magic  lanterns.  The  yellow  glass  is  nearest  the  light,  and  the  ruby  outside  ;  this  gives 
plenty  of  light,  is  perfectly  safe,  and  about  as  cheap  and  convenient  as  anything  you  can  get. 
Proceed  to  filter  the  emulsion  through  a  good  tuft  of  cotton-wool  placed  in  a  funnel.  Place 
a  glass  marble  upon  the  cotton-wool  in  the  centre  ;  it  prevents  the  wool  rising  when  the 
emulsion  is  poured  upon  it.  Before  pouring  the  emulsion  on,  pass  some  hot  water  through 
the  cotton-wool,  and  pass  the  emulsion  through  twice,  at  least. 

The  pouring-bottle  consists  of  a  blue  pyro  bottle,  close  to  the  bottom  of  which  I  have 
bored  a  hole,  and  into  this  hole  I  introduce  a  glass  tube,  with  a  portion  of  India-rubber 
tube  upon  it  to  make  it  water-tight,  and  tie  a  string  round  the  tube  and  neck  of  the  bottle 
to  hold  the  tube  in  its  place.  This  is  my  pouring-bottle.  You  will  see  my  object  is  to  pour 
from  the  bottom,  thus  avoiding  air-bubbles.  The  tube  is  simply  a  "  feeding-bottle  "  tube,  and 
the  whole  thing  does  not  cost  a  shilling,  but  is  worth  a  good  deal  for  this  job.  Heat  the 
bottle  in  warm  water,  filter  the  emulsion  directly  into  it,  and  set  it  in  a  basin  of  hot  water 
for  immediate  use. 

In  coating,  pour  the  emulsion  out  of  the  bottle  into  a  glass  measure  (I  have  several  sizes). 
using  a  drachm  to  every  ten  square  inches  of  surface  ;  thus,  a  ten  by  eight  will  take  eight 
drachms  or  one  ounce.  I  consider  it  very  important  to  measure  the  quantity  on  each  plate. 
Spread  with  a  light  bent  glass  rod,  and  when  all  the  plates  are  coated  put  the  lid  over,  and 
you  can  admit  white  light  until  they  are  set,  which  will  probably  be  in  two  or  three  hours. 
Do  not  disturb  them  till  thoroughly  set,  then  transfer  them  to  the  drying-box,  light  the  Bun- 
sen  burner,  and  in  about  twenty  hours  the  plates  will  be  dry. 

In  storing  the  plates  when  dry,  place  them  face  to  face,  without  anything  between  them; 
wipe  the  backs  from  any  emulsion  that  may  be  upon  them,  and  so  place  them  in  pairs.  I 
usually  make  them  up  in  parcels  of  eight  plates,  the  box,  etc.,  being  adapted  for  making  six- 
teen plates  at  one  heat.  I  wrap  up  in  yellow  paper  two  thicknesses  and  brown  paper  ditto. 
— J.  A.  FORREST. 


272 


"WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 


FIG.  84. 


dry  in  a  current  of  air,  and  where  there  is  no  dampness.  You  will  now 
have  sensitized  plates  of  excellent  quality,  ready  to  be  used  or  packed 
away.  These  plates,  carefully  packed,  may  be  indefinitely  kept,  as  well 
as  the  emulsion,  but,  like  the  emulsion,  they  must  be  protected  from  damp- 
ness and  light.  Remember,  in  all  your  manipulations,  how  very  sensitive 

The  drying-box  is  illustrated  in  Figs.  84  and  85.     A  is  an  oblong  box  7Jx  11  inches,  and 
30  inches  high,  inside  measurement.      B  is  a  tin  tube  4  inches  in  diameter,  and  a  little 

longer  than  the  height  of  the  box.  a  is  another  tin 
tube,  2  inches  in  diameter,  reaching  from  the  diaphragm, 
g,  in  the  large  tube,  up  through  its  top.  The  tubes  d  and 
e,  each  1J-  inches  in  diameter  and  4  inches  long,  connect 
the  large  tin  tube  with  the  box,  the  tube  e  entering  the 
box  1  inch  below  its  top,  and  the  tube  d  1  inch  above  its 
bottom.  The  shelves,  2,  2,  are  each  fastened  tightly  in 
the  box,  but  are  each  only  10  inches  wide,  thus  leaving  a 
space  at  their  ends  1  inch  wide  between  the  doors  of  the 
box,  c.  The  large  tin  tube,  B,  is  perforated  with  a  row 
of  half-inch  holes  just  above  the  diaphragm,  ^,  to  admit 
air.  The  lamp,  c,  is  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  large  tin 
tube.  The  sides  of  th'e  box,  A,  between  the  shelves,  2,  2, 
are  full  of  grooves,  \\  inch  deep,  \\  inch  wide,  and  1^  inch 
apart,  as  shown  in  the  sectional  figure,  85.  I  use  only  5x8 
and  8  x  10  plates  ;  and  when  I  begin  putting  plates  in  the 
box,  I  slide  the  first  plate  into  the  first  upper  pair  of 
grooves,  leaving  it  so  that  the  door  of  the  box  will  touch 
it  when  it  is  closed.  If  the  plates  are  5x8,1  put  two 
plates  into  each  pair  of  grooves,  and  if  8x10,  only  one. 
The  second  plate  I  put  in  the  second  pair  of  grooves, 
but  slide  it  back  against  the  back  of  the  box.  The  third 
I  lean  against  the  door,  and  the  fourth  against  the  back,  -and  so  on  until  the  box  is  full  or 
the  batch  is  all  in.  The  figures  1,1,1,1,1  show  the  position  of  the  plates  in  the  box.  When 
the  plates  are  all  in,  I  close  the  door,  c,  which  fits  tightly,  and 
light  the  lamp  in  the  bottom  of  the  tin  tube.  I  use  a  small  night- 
lamp,  burning  kerosene  oil.  The  air  for  the  lamp  has  to  come 
through  the  tube,  d,  and  out  of  the  box,  A.  The  heat  of  the  lamp 
warms  the  tube,  a,  also  warming  the  air  in  the  space  between  the 
two  tubes,  which  rises  and  passes  into  the  box,  A,  through  the  tube, 
e,  its  place  being  supplied  with  cold  air  through  the  holes  in  the 
large  tube  just  above  the  diaphragm,  g.  A  current  of  warm  air 
(as  shown  by  the  arrows  in  Fig.  84)  is  thus  kept  up  over  the  plates,  and  they  will  dry  very 
quickly.  The  upper  ones  will  dry  first,  and,  as  they  dry,  it  is  well  to  shove  them  in  against 
the  back  of  the  box,  thus  giving  the  warm  air  a  better  chance  at  the  plates  below.  A  batch 
of  plates,  from  four  ounces  of  emulsion,  put  in  in  the  evening  will  be  nice  and  dry  in  the 
morning. — JAY  DENSMORE. 
It  often  happens,  in  very  damp  weather,  that  a  gelatin  negative  refuses  to  dry  for  hours, 


FIG.  85. 


BROMO-GELATIN    EMULSION    WORK. 


273 


FIG.  86. 


gelatin  is  to  dampness,  how  the  least  change  in  this  respect  will  change 
the  nature  and  the  action  of  gelatin  in  any  form.  And  when  it  is  sensi- 
tized, the  light  coming  upon  it  will  spoil  it  instantly.  Dry  air  and 
freedom  from  light  are  positively  essential  to  success. 

and  even  when  flooded  with  spirit  takes  a  considerable  time.  To  those  who  do  not  possess  a 
good  drying  cupboard,  the  following  is  offered  as  a 
thoroughly  efficient  substitute,  which  any  one  can 
make  for  himself  with  a  little  help  from  the  black- 
smith. The  annexed  wood-cut  will  almost  explain 
itself.  The  box  may  be  of  any  form  most  convenient, 
but  the  more  shallow  the  better  ;  the  one  in  actual  use 
stands  on  an  ordinary  work-bench,  and  the  gas-burner 
and  iron  cone,  etc.,  on  the  floor,  enclosed  with  a  few 
bricks  piled  up  to  keep  in  the  heat  and  protect  any 
woodwork.  The  box  measures  thirty  inches  high, 
thirty  inches  wide,  and  ten  inches  deep  from  back  to 
front;  the  front  is  closed  up  at  the  lower  part  about 
six  inches,  and  a  sliding  door,  running  in  grooves, 
closes  the  upper  part  all  but  about  half  an  inch  at  the 
top,  a  balance  weight  over  a  pulley  supporting  it  in 
any  position  required.  This  is  found  a  much  better 
way  than  having  doors  opening  on  hinges,  for  various 
reasons.  The  current  of  warm  air  is  conveyed  in  at 
the  bottom,  through  a  three-inch  circular  opening,  the 
iron  stove-pipe  arrangement  being  screwed  on  under- 
neath. Above  the  opening,  at  a  little  distance,  is  supported  a  thin  shelf  of  wood  about  an 
inch  smaller  all  round  than  the  inside  of  the  box,  which  acts  as  a  diffuser,  and  stops  the  cur- 
rent of  hot  air  from  rushing  up  in  one  spot ;  above  this,  at  any  convenient  height,  two  bars 
are  fixed  to  carry  the  feet  of  the  drying-rack  containing  the  plates.  It  will  be  found  that 
plates  will  dry  without  running,  at  a  very  considerably  higher  temperature  than  that  at 
which  gelatin  melts,  if  the  heated  air  is  kept  in  continual  motion. — ALEXANDER  COWAN. 

I  use  the  following  substratum  :  Take  the  white  of  one  egg  to  twenty  ounces  of  water,  to 
which  add  an  ounce  of  methylated  spirit  and  about  twenty  drops  of  carbolic  acid.  It  is 
better  to  add  the  carbolic  acid  to  the  spirit  and  stir,  and  then  add  the  whole  to  the  albumen; 
agitate  well,  allow  to  stand  until  next  day,  and  filter  clean.  This  will  keep  for  months.  I 
find  this  a  "  perfect  cure  "  for  frilling  ;  the  substratum  adheres  thoroughly  to  the  glass,  and 
the  gelatin  adheres  thoroughly  to  the  substratum.  No  alum  water  is  necessary  while  de- 
veloping, nor  any  tampering  with  the  emulsion.  I  have  never  lost  a  single  plate  from  frill- 
ing since  I  adopted  this  method,  but  dozens  before. — J.  A.  FORREST. 

Defects  in  plates.  Spots  may  generally  be  discovered  by  passing  the  finger  softly  over  the 
surface.  Local  intensification  may  be  given  by  applying  a  saturated  solution  of  bichloride 
01  mercury  with  a  brush  to  the  parts  requiring  it,  and  local  reduction  may  be  obtained  in 
tne  same  way,  substituting  potassium  cyanide  for  mercury  salt.  White  points  or  round 
spots  with  a  sharp  outline,  which,  after  fixing,  have  a  glassy  appearance,  are  caused  by  air- 
bubbles  adhering  to  the  plate,  and  preventing  the  developer  from  penetrating.  These  bub- 
18 


274  WILSON'S    PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

330.  EXPOSURE. — The  length  of  the  exposure  varies  considerably  accord- 
ing to  the  sensitiveness  of  the  emulsion ;  generally,  one  or  two  seconds 
are  sufficient  to  take  a  well-lighted  view.  In  the  glass-house,  where  care 
must  be  taken  to  avoid  contrasts,  and  to  throw  the  light  uniformly  upon 
the  subject,  the  exposure  varies  from  three  to  six  seconds.  In  thirty  sec- 
onds we  may  obtain  a  very  good  effect,  even  when  the  light  is  so  weak 
that  it  would  be  impossible  to  obtain  a  portrait  with  wret  collodion.  Make 
use  of  a  shutter,  especially  for  outside  work ;  as,  with  the  rapidity  pos- 
sessed by  gelatin,  it  is  indispensable  that  the  foreground  should  be  exposed 
a  little  longer  than  the  distance.  In  twenty  minutes  it  is  possible  to  ob- 
tain an  interior  lighted  with  gas;  and  the  prints,  by  contact,  may  be 
made  by  lamplight. 

Concerning  instantaneous  work,  for  which  gelatino-bromide  seems  to 
have  been  invented,  more  further  on. 

Gelatin  plates  may  be  exposed  just  as  well  when  reversed  as  in  the  ordi- 
nary position,  care  being  taken  when  focussing  to  consider  the  thickness 
of  the  plate,  or  to  use  a  plate-holder  made  on  purpose  to  correct  the 
difference. 

bles  may  be  avoided  by  rinsing  the  plates  with  water  before  development,  or  by  a  gentle 
movement  of  the  pan  during  the  same.  They  can  also  be  removed  by  a  camel's-hair  brush 
at  the  same  time.  Irregular  lines  and  spots  make  their  appearance  when  there  is  too  little  de- 
veloping solution  flowed  over  the  plate,  so  that  portions  only  are  covered.  In  this  case,  also, 
if  the  plate  be  previously  moistened  with  water,  a  less  quantity  of  developer  will  be  re- 
quired.— W.  P.  BOLTON. 

330  One  of  the  great  claims  in  favor  of  the  gelatin-emulsion  process  was  and  is  its  great 
rapidity.  Every  manufacturer  of  dry  plates  calls  them  "instantaneous,"  and  undoubtedly 
they  are  so,  provided  the  lens,  its  aperture,  the  amount  of  light,  the  nature  of  the  subject, 
etc.,  allow  of  "  instantaneity."  Unfortunately,  however,  the  cases  which  admit  of  instan- 
taneous exposure  (whatever  the  real  signification  of  the  expression  may  be)  are  very  few, 
and  not  often  met  with.  It  is  not  so  very  long  ago,  however,  that  a  doubt  on  this  subject 
would  have  been  considered  heresy,  and  that  the  unfortunate  proposer  thereof  would  have 
been  condemned  for  his  ignorance.  Not  a  few  would  have  made  us  believe  that  the  same 
description  of  lens,  which,  with  a  given  diaphragm,  would  give  an  instantaneous  pic- 
ture on  a  4|  by  3|  plate,  would  perform  the  same  feat  on  a  10  by  8  plate.  Four  p.  M.  in 
June,  or  in  November,  a  sea  view  or  a  dark  forest — every  subject  was  to  be  taken  instanta- 
neous ;  we  could  not  work  quick  enough.  I  think  experience  has  already  shown  the  fallacy 
of  those  statements,  and  nearly  every  number  of  the  News  contains  some  sort  of  warning  on 
this  score.  As  I  wish  to  endorse  these  warnings,  I  beg  at  the  same  time  to  give  my  brother- 
amateurs  the  reason  why.  In  order  to  obtain  a  perfect  gelatin  negative,  I  have  observed 
that  the  development  must  not  take  too  much  time.  Pyrogallic  acid — either  used  with  am- 
monia and  a  bromide,  or  with  ferri-cyanide  and  ammonia — is  apt  to  stain  the  plate  wherever 


BROMO-GELATIK    EMULSION    WORK.  275 

331.  DEVELOPMENT. — And  here  is  where  genius  is  most  needed.  It  is 
important  that  the  development  should  be  made  in  a  large  and  cool  room. 
If  yours  is  not  of  this  kind,  take  the  precaution  to  place  in  cool  water  the 
solutions  which  are  to  he  used  in  developing  and  fixing  the  image,  and 
use  for  the  washings  \vater  as  cold  as  possible.  On  the  question  of  de- 
veloping the  gelatino-bromized  plates,  the  opinion  of  photographers  is 
equally  divided — some  will  only  use  the  iron  developer,  others,  pyrogallic 
acid.  It  is  \vell  to  have  ready  both  of  these  developers,  as  each  one  pos- 
sesses its  particular  advantages.  Iron  is  without  doubt  the  most  certain 
and  the  easiest  to  use,  but  the  operator  who  understands  thoroughly  the 

the  development  has  taken  too  long  in  consequence  of  too  short  exposure.  And,  moreover, 
I  have  experienced  that  with  the  ferri-cyanide,  under  these  circumstances,  the  plate  almost 
refuses  to  fix  in  the  shadows,  producing  partly  red  or  yellow  fog.  With  the  oxalate  devel- 
oper it  appears  that  the  development  of  under-exposed  plates  only  proceeds  to  a  certain 
point,  and  then  stops  altogether.  As  I  only  work  landscapes,  as  a  rule  10  by  8,  it  is  of  course 
necessary  that  the  printing  depth  at  the  corners  should  be  as  good  as  in  the  centre,  and  this 
object  I  find  impossible  to  attain  where  the  exposure  has  been  too  short  After  fixing,  the 
image,  from  a  good  negative  in  the  middle  of  the  plate,  will  merge  into  a  fine  positive  at  tho. 
sides.  Intensification  with  bichloride  of  mercury  will  not  do  much  good  in  these  cases,  for 
it  seems  as  if  this  salt  has  a  greater  propensity  to  take  hold  of  the  well-developed  parts  of  the 
picture,  affecting  the  remainder  less ;  and  it  should  be  well  borne  in  mind  that  the  mercury 
followed  by  ammonia  strengthens,  but  does  not  develop. — H.  L.  T.  HAAKMAN. 

331.  But  the  time  taken  in  development  has  a  great  effect  towards  or  against  success.  Take 
any  gelatin  plate,  expose  on  any  subject,  each  half  equally,  and  then  cut  the  plate.  Develop 
one-half  in  a  given  quantity  of  developer  of  the  strength  requisite  to  complete  the  develop- 
ment quickly  ;  then  develop  the  other  half  in  the  same  quantity  of  water,  but  adding  the 
reagent  little  by  little,  taking  some  time  to  acquire  the  same  strength  of  developer  as  was 
used  with  the  first  half.  You  will  find  the  slowly-developed  plate  will  give  a  negative  much 
denser  and  more  brilliant  than  the  quickly-developed  one.  From  this  it  results  that  for  a 
subject  wanting  in  contrast,  or  a  little  over-exposed,  it  is  safer  to  develop  slowly;  while  a 
highty-contrasted  subject  will  be  the  better  for  a  development  short  and  sharp.  In  whatever 
form  you  keep  your  stock  solutions,  have  ever  at  hand  strong  solutions  of  ammonia,  pyro- 
gallio,  and  bromide.  I  use  the  same  stock  solutions — pyrogallic,  glycerin,  and  alcohol; 
ammonia,  bromide,  glycerin,  and  water — for  every  kind  of  gelatin  plate.  When  I  get  a 
new  make  of  emulsion,  I  never  dream  of  making  up  my  developer  by  the  maker's  formulae; 
if  I  did  so,  the  facility  of  comparison  would  be  lost.  Stop  development  when  there  is  no 
longer  any  pure  white  to  be  seen  on  the  face  of  the  plate,  and  when  the  high-lights  can  be 
seen  at  the  back.  This  rule,  however,  does  not  hold  good  for  every  kind  of  subject:  practice 
in  this  matter  is  the  best  guide.  You  must  have  enough  light  to  see  clearly  what  is  going  on 
on  the  plate,  and,  what  is  more,  you  must  scrutinize  carefully  each  change  that  takes  place. 
This  can  not  be  safely  done  with  a  light  that  does  not  affect  the  solar  spectrum  ;  but  it  can  be 
done  with  plenty  of  light  of  the  right  kind.  Suit  your  development  to  your  subject — your 
cartridge  to  your  gun  and  your  game. — ANDREW  PRINQLB. 


276  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

manipulation  of  pyrogallic  acid  may  decide  to  give  it  the  preference,  espe- 
cially for  landscapes,  as  his  prints  will  have  more  delicacy  and  clearness. 
332.  These  two  developers  are  to  he  used  in  the  following  manner : 
At  the  exact  moment  of  developing  pour  into  a  black  dish  made  of  hard 
rubber  or  pasteboard,  for  a  half  plate  (13x18  centimetres)  (five  to  seven 
inches),  50  c.c.  (one  fluid  ounce  five  fluid  drachms)  of  the  iron  bath  which 
you  use  for  the  wet  collodion,  namely: 

Water,                            .     ' 100  parts. 

Pure  Sulphate  of  Iron, 6      " 

Acetic  Acid,          .........  6      " 

Alcohol,        ..........  5      " 

Add  in  the  dish  55  c.c.  (one  fluid  ounce  seven  fluid  drachms)  of  the  fol- 
lowing solution,  which  does  not  change,  and  consequently  can  be  pre- 
pared beforehand: 

Water,  „ 1000  parts. 

Neutral  Oxalate  of  Potash, 300      " 

Bromide  of  Ammonium,      .......         1  part. 

[The  neutral  oxalate  of  potash  solution  may  be  also  obtained  by  melting  with  the  aid  of 
heat  in  a  litre  (one  quart)  of  ordinary  water,  200  grammes  (6  ounces  Troy  3  drachms)  carbo- 
nate of  potash,  arid  157  grammes  (5  ounces  Troy)  of  oxalic  acid.  Absolute  neutrality  is  not 
necessary.  The  solution  made  and  filtered,  always  add  one  gramme  (15  grains)  of  bromide 
of  ammonium.] 

Now  plunge  the  plate  into  this  mixture  without  waiting.  If  the  plate 
is  long,  it  should  pass  through  ordinary  water.  Gently  rock  the  dish; 

332.  I  attribute  the  majority  of  failures  in  the  gelatin  process  to  over-exposure.  The 
pyro  and  ammonia  is  so  rapid  in  its  action,  and  if  prolonged  over  a  considerable  time  by 
the  addition  of  a  little  more  ammonia,  pyro  or  bromide,  the  film  is  liable  to  stain,  which 
lowers  the  brilliancy  of  the  resulting  print.  Now,  with  the  ferrous  oxalate  the  case  is  dif- 
ferent. Prolonged  development  has  no  effect  on  the  shadows,  which  remain  bright  if  the 
development  extend  over  a  very  long  period.  It  is  always  better  to  err  on  the  side  of  over- 
exposure,  for  by  careful  manipulation  a  good  negative  can  be  secured,  while  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  get  a  satisfactory  result  from  under-exposure.  The  plan  I  recommend  is  to 
have  a  series  of  ordinary  dipping-baths.  No.  1  to  contain  one  part  of  a  saturated  solution 
of  protosulphate  of  iron,  mixed  with  three  parts  of  saturated  solution  of  oxalate  of  potash  ; 
No.  2,  one  part  to  six  ;  No.  3,  one  part  to  twelve  ;  and  No.  4,  one  part  to  twelve,  with  three 
grains  of  bromide  of  potassium  to  each  ounce  of  solution.  To  commence  :  Put  the  exposed 
plate  in  No.  3.  If  the  development  appears  to  be  going  on  satisfactorily,  it  may  be  completed 
in  that  solution  ;  should  it  appear  too  slowly  put  it  in  No.  2,  and,  if  then  not  fast  enough,  into 
No.  1,  where  it  may  remain  until  properly  developed.  If  the  exposure  be  correct,  the  time 
ought  not  to  exceed  five  minutes.  If  there  be  plenty  of  detail  but  a  want  of  density,  put  it 
into  No.  4,  and  allow  it  to  remain  there  until  sufficiently  dense.  If  it  show  up  too  rapidly 


BROMO-GELATIN    EMULSION    WORK.  277 

in  thirty  seconds  the  high-lights  should  show  themselves,  and  in  three 
minutes  the  cliche  should  be  developed.  In  all  cases  the  action  of  the 
developer  should  be  allowed  to  continue  until  all  the  details  are  very  ap- 
parent, which  it  is  easy  to  see  by  reflection,  the  image  showing  itself  white 
on  a  black  ground;  and  until  you  have  obtained  the  desired  intensity, 
which  you  will  always  recognize  by  transparency,  provided  the*  emulsion 
is  not  thicker  than  it  ought  to  be,  do  not  fear  to  prolong  the  development 
even  beyond  the  point  at  which  it  appears  to  be  sufficient,  especially  if 
the  coating  of  emulsion  is  thick.  The  same  developer  may  be  used  to 
develop  two  or  three  plates,  but  it  should  be  renewed  for  a  fourth ;  now 
wash  with  care,  and  place  the  plate  in  a  ten  .per  cent,  hyposulphite  bath, 
in  which  it  is  allowed  to  remain  double  the  time  necessary  for  its  com- 
plete clearing  or  fixing.  It  is  necessary  to  change  the  hyposulphite  bath 
as  soon  as  it  acquires  a  too  decided  yellow  tint,  as,  if  care  be  not  taken, 
this  tint  may  show  itself  on  the  negative.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  it  is 
better  to  have  the  hyposulphite  bath  in  a  porcelain  dish,  in  which  it  is 
easier  to  perceive  any  change  of  color.  On  taking  the  plate  from  the 

when  in  No.  8  put  it  into  No.  4,  and  finish  in  that  bath,  unless  it  appears  to  be  coming  out 
too  slowly,  when  wash  the  plate,  and  put  it  into  Nos.  3,  2,  or  1  to  get  the  proper  detail. 
These  solutions  can  be  repeatedly  used  if  decanted  after  use  into  bottles  kept  full  to  the  cork; 
or  may  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the  baths  if  covered  with  paraffine,  benzoline,  chloroform, 
or  ether.  In  that  case  the  plate  must  be  made  wet  before  immersing  in  the  developer.  I 
am  presuming  that  over-exposure  is  the  rule  ;  under-exposure  requires  a  fifth  bath,  contain- 
ing the  old  ferrous-oxalate  developer,  composed  of  an  excess  of  oxalate  of  iron  dissolved  in 
a  hot  saturated  solution  of  oxalate  of  potash,  or,  failing  a  supply  of  oxalate  of  iron,  dissolve 
protosulphate  of  iron  in  a  boiling  saturated  solution  of  oxalate  of  potash.  These  solutions 
decompose  more  rapidly  than  the  mixed  saturated  solutions,  hence  the  necessity  of  covering 
them  as  soon  as  mixed  with  paraffine.  To  sum  up:  The  advantages  are — cleanliness,  de- 
velopment in  the  light  of  an  ordinary  dark-room,  leisure  in  watching  the  process  of  devel- 
opment, no  after-intensification,  absence  of  stain,  which  facilitates  printing,  and  brilliant 
prints  resembling  ordinary  wet-plate  work. — F.  YORK. 

Try  the  iron  development  as  given  in  our  directions.  It  is  so  simple  and  easy  to 
manage  that  anybody  of  common  sense  can  work  it  successfully,  and  does  away  with  the 
many  bottles  and  continued  measuring  of  the  developing  solutions,  which  take  so  much  time 
and  attention  with  the  alkaline  development.  The  iron  is  more  economical  and  works  fully 
as  quick,  and  the  negatives  obtained  thereby  resemble  very  much  the  ordinary  collodion 
plate.  Furthermore,  there  are  no  fumes  of  ammonia  created  in  the  dark-room,  which  are 
so  injurious  to  the  silver  bath.  If  a  negative  developed  by  iron  is  treated  with  a  cold 
mixture  of  eight  parts  water  and  one  part  sulphuric  acid  after  mixing  and  washing,  it  will 
be  much  improved  in  clearness.  Negatives  developed  by  pyro  have  sometimes  a  yellow 
color  which  makes  them  print  slowly  ;  this  can  be  readily  removed  by  pouring  on  water 
containing  twelve  drops  of  nitrjc  acid  per  ounce.  Our  method  is  as  follows:  Oxalate: 


278  WILSON'S    PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

fixing-bath  wash  carefully,  and  instead  of  setting  it  aside  to  dry,  as  you 
are  in  the  habit  of  doing  with  a  wet-collodion  plate,  place  it  to  soak  in  a 
bucket  of  ordinary  water.  When  the  day's  work  is  done,  remove  the 
plates  from  the  tub,  and  in  daylight  examine  them  well,  one  after  another. 
If  the  exposure  has  been  good,  and  the  development  well  done,  almost 
all  of  them  will  be  right,  and  you  will  have  nothing  further  to  do  with 
them.  If  some  require  strengthening,  place  them  successively  in  the  two 
baths  indicated  by  Dr.  Monckhoven  for  this  purpose,  care  being  taken  to 
wash  them  carefully  between  each  bath.  The  whiter  the  film  becomes 
in  the  first,  the  greater  the  strength  acquired  in  the  second.  If  the  desired 
result  is  not  obtained  in  the  first  trial,  you  may  without  injury,  after  wash- 
ing, repeat  the  operation. 

Bath  1.— Water, 100  parts. 

Bichloride  of  Mercury, 2      " 

Bromide  of  Ammonium,          ......         2      " 

Bath  2.— Water, 100  parts. 

Nitrate  of  Silver, 2      " 

Pure  Cyanide  of  Potassium,    ......         2      " 

For  the  second  bath  of  cyanide  of  silver  you  may  often  use  with  ad- 
Dissolve  as  much  neutral  oxalate  of  potassium  in  hot  water  as  the  water  will  take  up  (the 
proportion  is  about  one  to  four  parts),  and  allow  it  to  cool.  Test  with  blue  litmus-paper ;  if 
the  color  of  the  paper  remains  blue,  add  a  little  of  a  concentrated  solution  of  oxalic  acid  in 
water  until  the  paper  turns  slightly  red.  Iron :  Make  a  saturated  solution  of  protosulphate 
of  iron  in  hot  water.  Let  it  cool,  and  stand  until  settled.  Decant  the  clear  solution,  and  to 
each  ounce  add  one  drop  of  sulphuric  acid.  For  the  developer,  mix  of  the  two  solutions 
enough  for  one  day's  use.  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  iron  solution  to  four  or  five  parts 
oxalate.  Add  the  iron  to  the  oxalate,  but  never  the  reverse.  The  fresh  developer  is  very 
powerful,  and  apt  to  produce  flat  pictures,  but  after  being  used  a  few  times,  or  by  getting 
old,  will  soon  lose  in  strength,  and  develop  slowly,  with  too  much  intensity.  Therefore,  the 
best  way  to  proceed  is  as  follows:  Have  two  bottles  of  different  shapes,  but  of  same  size,  one 
for  the  new  and  one  for  the  old  developer,  which  bottles  should  be  cleaned  once  every  day. 
After  developing  a  plate,  pour  the  solution  from  the  developing-dish  into  the  bottle  for  old 
developer.  Commence  to  develop  the  next  plate  with  the  old  developer  which  you  had 
saved,  moving  the  dish  gently,  and  if  the  picture  comes  out  too  easily,  it  is  a  sign  of  over- 
exposure.  In  this  case  add  a  little  water  to  it;  but  if  after  a  minute  the  picture  does  not 
begin  to  appear,  pour  away  a  little  of  the  solution,  and  add  some  from  the  fresh,  which  will 
bring  out  the  picture  clear  and  brilliant ;  for  very  short  exposure,  throw  out  the  old  solution 
entirely  and  finish  with  fresh.  Wash,  fix,  and  intensify,  or  reduce  the  same  as  described 
before. — CRAMER  &  NORDEN. 

Many  photographers  have  complained,  and  still  do  so,  of  the  fogged  and  flat  appearance 
of  a  negative  developed  with  ferrous  oxalate,  and  certainly  not  without  cause;  but  tbe 


BROMO-GELATIN    EMULSION    WORK.  279 

vantage  (though  with  the  utmost  caution,  for  it  is  just  here  that  many  a 
previously  good  result  is  totally  spoiled)  a  solution  of  ammonia: 

Water, 100  parts. 

Ammonia,     ..........       15     " 

There  is  still  another  very  convenient  strengthener,  that  of  bichloride 
of  mercury.  This  being  composed  but  of  a  single  solution,  it  is  easier 
to  follow  its  action  than  it  is  with  the  preceding  one;  but  it  is  open  to  the 
objection  of  slightly  fogging  the  plate,  whilst  the  other  makes  it  clearer. 
This  strengthener  is  composed,  as  you  know,  of  the  following  three 
solutions  : 

l._Water, 180  parts. 

Bichloride  of  Mercury, 4  " 

2._Water, .  .  60  " 

Iodide  of  Potassium, 6  " 

3.— Water, 60  " 

Hyposulphite  of  Soda, .         8      " 

If,  instead  of  being  strengthened,  some  of  the  plates  should  be  weak 
ened,  place  them  either  in  a  weak  bath  of  perchloride  of  iron,  or  in  a 
highly  diluted  solution  of  cyanide  of  potassium;  for  example,  one  part  for 
two  hundred  and  fifty  parts  of  water,  and  stop  the  action  of  the  bath  at 
the  proper  time.  The  plate  finished,  strengthened,  or  weakened,  should 
again  be  washed  and  allowed  to  remain  five  minutes  in  the  following  bath  • 

Water, 100  parts. 

Alum, 10      " 

Alcohol, 4      " 

This  last  bath  possesses  several  advantages ;  in  the  first  place,  it  purges 
the  print  of  the  injurious  salts  that  it  might  contain,  gives  it  more  lim- 

remedy  is  in  their  own  hands.  This  effect  I  have  invariably  found  to  be  produced  when  the 
oxalate  of  potash  has  proved  to  be  alkaline  instead  of  neutral.  To  remedy  this  there  should 
always  be  at  hand  a  small  bottle  containing  a  saturated  solution  of  oxalic  acid,  and  when 
the  required  quantity  of  potash  oxalate  has  been  dissolved  in  hot  water,  a  drop  of  it  should 
be  placed  on  a  piece  of  red  litmus-paper.  If  it  turn  the  paper  slightly  blue,  then  a  few 
drops  of  oxalic  acid  should  be  added,  and  the  liquid  stirred  well.  Test  again  with  red 
litmus-paper,  and  if  it  still  turn  the  paper  slightly  blue,  then  add  a  few  drops  more  of  the 
oxalic  acid  solution.  If  found  on  trial  again  that  it  is  neutral  by  its  neither  affecting  the 
red  nor  blue  litmus-paper,  then  the  desired  quantity  of  ferrous  oxalate  may  be  added,  and  the 
solution  made  up  complete  by  the  addition  of  a  few  grains  of  bromide  of  ammonium.  If 
ferrous-oxalate  developer  be  made  from  an  alkaline  sample  of  potass  oxalate,  the  resulting 
negative  is  always  foggy  and  weak  in  appearance,  no  matter  how  good  the  gelatin  plates 


280 


WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 


pidity,  renders  it  much  more  solid,  and  makes  its  preservation  certain. 
Now  wash  for  the  last  time,  and  until  the  disappearance  of  any  greasy 
trace,  and  dry  without  the  u$e  of  heat.  This  drying  generally  requires  a 
long  time,  but  you  can  make  it  much  shorter  by  dipping  the  plate  in  an 
alcohol  bath,  and  allowing  it  to  dry  spontaneously,  which  requires  about 
a  quarter  of  an  hour. 

333.  PYROGALLIC  ACID  DEVELOPER. — Prepare  the  following  solutions : 


1.— Distilled  Water,  . 

Pyrogallic  Acid, 
2. — Ordinary  Water, 

Bromide  of  Ammonium, 

Ammonia,     . 
A. — Water, 

Ammonia,    . 
B.— Water, 


500  parts. 

3      " 
500      " 


10 
10 
10 
20 


FIG-  87. 


Bromide  of  Ammonium,      .......       10      " 

These  last  two  solutions,  A  and  B,  being  used  only  in  very  small  quan- 

may  be;  but  if  the  same  sample  of  potass  oxalate  be  neutralized  by  the  addition  of  oxalic 
acid,  the  resulting  negatives  have  all  the  printing  density  required,  with  beautiful  and  clear 
shadows.  Although  the  same  sample  of  plates  may  be  used,  that  with  the  alkaline  potass 
oxalate  gives  thin  and  foggy  negatives.  If  every  photographer  who  uses  the  ferrous-oxalate 
developer  would  test  his  potass  oxalate  before  using,  he  would  then  know  the  true  power  of 
his  developer,  and  have  it  more  under  control  than  in  working  by  rule  of  thumb. — A.  J. 
JARMAN. 

The  apparatus  for  preserving  ferrous-oxalate  developer  consists  of  a  pickle-bottle,  in  the 
cork  of  which  are  inserted  two  tubes.  One  tube  is  bent  for  delivery  of  the  solution  into  a 
tray  when  required  for  use.  The  other  is  a  thistle-headed  fun- 
nel through  which  to  pour  it  back  into  the  bottle.  A  layer  of 
paraffine  protects  it  from  the  air.  In  using  this  bottle  the  mouth 
is  applied  to  the  funnel,  and  air  is  blown  through  it  to  expel 
the  liquid  through  the  delivery  tube. — T.  H.  C. 

333.  Successful  development  depends  upon — 1.  Extraneous 
circumstances,  that  is,  accommodation,  light,  and  mechanical 
contrivances,  on  which  points  I  have  nothing  here  to  say.  2. 
Proportions  of  the  reagents  employed.  3.  Length  of  time  em- 
ployed in  the  process.  4.  Like  success  in  everything  else — 
brains.  Upon  this  last  essential  depends  the  success  of  the 
entire  operation.  Now,  in  blindly  following  out  the  printed 
instructions  of  a  plate  manufacturer,  or  the  confidential  direc- 
tions of  some  friend  at  headquarters,  who  knows  all  the  "big- 
wigs," brains  can  play  no  part,  so  that  nothing  is  left  for  our 
brains  but  to  comprehend  the  rationale  and  practice  of  Nos.  2  and  3. 

Every  one  knows  that  "pyro  gives  density,  ammonia  detail,  while  bromide  keeps  the 


BROMO-GELATIN    EMULSION    WORK.  281 

tity,  are  kept  in  bottles  having  a  drop-tube.  To  develop,  make  a  mixture 
of  equal  parts  of  the  first  two  solutions,  No.  1  and  No.  2.  If  the  ex- 
posure is  good,  this  mixture  is  sufficient  to  completely  develop  the  print 

shadows  ciean  and  checks  over-hasty  development;  "  but  how  many  put  their  knowledge  to 
any  use  ?  Our  friend,  Mr.  Phocus,  has  had  a  field-day.  In  his  slides  he  has  plates  bearing 
the  "  latent  images  "  of  a  landscape  or  two  with  fine  distances,  a  duke's  country-seat,  a 
waterfall  in  deep  shadow,  and  perhaps  a  happily-caught  cloud  effect.  In  his  dark-room  he 
finds  Mr.  Collodion's  printed  instructions,  thus  : 

Pyro, 2  grains. 

Water,     ............1  ounce. 

Ammonia  liquid,  fifty  per  cent,  solution,         .....       2  drops. 

Bromide  of  Potassium,  five  per  cent,  solution,         .         .         .  2  -     " 

or  something  of  that  kind,  and  straightway  makes  up  enough  of  these  solutions  to  develop 
all  his  negatives.  He  is  surprised  to  find  his  landscapes  nearly  clear  glass,  his  mansion- 
house  almost  a  success  (barring,  perhaps,  the  foilage  of  a  splendid  and  characteristic  elm), 
his  waterfall  as  hard  as  if  it  were  an  icicle,  and  his  cloud — nil!  "  Would  he  be  surprised 
to  hear  "  that  if  for  his  landscape  he  had  doubled  his  pyro  and  halved  his  ammonia,  if  for 
his  house  and  tree  he  had  reduced  his  bromide,  if  for  his  waterfall  he  had  halved  his  pyro, 
doubled  his  ammonia,  and  modified  his  bromide,  and  if  for  his  cloud  he  had  halved  the 
whole  lot,  he  would  have  got  a  negative  uniform  and  probably  fairly  good  ?  The  moral  is 
this :  When  you  have  a  subject  wanting  in  contrast — such  subjects  are  rarely  under-exposed 
— use  as  much  pyro  as  you  like,  only  as  much  ammonia  as  will  bring  out  all  detail,  and  as 
much  bromide  as  will  keep  the  shadows  clear.  When  you  have  strong  contrast,  keep  down 
the  pyro  and  with  it  the  density,  and  do  not  counteract  the  ammonia  with  too  much  bromide. 
When  making  cloud  negatives  for  printing  into  landscapes,  remember  that  you  only  want 
the  image  clearly  defined,  any  further  density  simply  causing  waste  of  time  in  the  double 
printing.  Of  course  many  will  say,  "  Oh  !  I  knew  all  that  before. "  I  say,  "  Then  do  it !  " — 
ANDREW  PRINGLE. 

I  prefer  to  develop  very  slowly,  as  one  has  more  control  over  results,  and  therefore  adopt 
the  following  method.     My  alkaline  developer  is  made  of  a  solution  of — 

Pyrogallic, 3  grains. 

Bromide  of  Ammonium,  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .    30      " 

Strong  Ammonia,     ..........      1  drachm. 

Water, 10  drachms. 

These  solutions  being  kept  separate.  The  pyrogallic  will  keep  a  considerable  time  if  a  drop 
of  nitric  acid  be  added,  as  recommended  by  Mr.  W.  Bedford.  Now  to  develop.  Before 
placing  the  plate  in  the  dish,  rub  round  the  edge  a  piece  of  white  wax.  This  is  a  great  pre- 
ventive to  frilling  at  the  edges.  Put  in  a  measure,  for  (say)  a  cabinet  size  plate,  one  ounce 
of  pyrogallic,  and  add  eight  or  ten  drops  of  the  bromide  solution,  and  the  same  quantity  of 
the  ammonia.  Pour  this  over  the  plate  (no  previous  wetting  is  necessary).  Watch  the  re- 
sult, and  if  the  right  exposure  has  been  given,  the  image  will  come  out  very  slowly;  if 
necessary  to  hasten  the  development,  and  to  get  the  proper  intensity,  a  few  more  drops 
of  ammonia  and  bromide  may  be  added,  or,  if  under-exposed,  ammonia  only.  A  useful 
form  of  dropping-tube,  and  which  I  always  use,  is  made  by  the  following  method.  A  piece 
of  quarter-inch-bore  glass  tube,  four  inches  in  length,  is  held  over  the  flame  of  a  spirit-lamp 


282  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

Although  it  is  believed  that  the  ferrous-oxalate  developer  will,  erelong, 
be  the  one  most  used  for  the  bromo-gelatin  plates,  still  the  amount  of 
experience  with  pyro  that  has  been  published  by  the  fraternity  abroad, 
leads  to  the  feeling  that  it  ought  to  be  given  a  place  here.  Pyro  will, 
sometimes,  place  a  power  in  your  hands  when  its  compeer  may  not  be  so 

and  one  end  sealed,  except  a  small  hole  about  the  size  of  a  pin.     Over  the  other  end  a  small 
red  rubber  pipe  must  be  placed,  about  three  inches  long.     Place  a  cork  in  the  end,  and  it  is 
ready  for  use,  and  may  always  remain  in  the  solution  ready  to  hand ;  by  pressing  the  rubber 
tube  it  will  take  up  sufficient  liquid,  which  can  be  dropped  in  the  exact  quantity  required 
by  pressing  the  tube  between  the  finger  and  thumb.     Sometimes  I  develop  with  iron,  which 
is  conveniently  used  in  the  following  way  :    A  saturated  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron,  an 
ditto  of  oxalate  of  potash,  using  four  parts  of  the  latter  to  one  of  the  former  ;  when  using  the 
iron  I  prefer  to  wet  the  plate  before  developing. — WM.  ENGLAND. 
Make  two  stock  solutions,  and  label  them  No.  1  and  No.  2: 
No.  1. — Pyrogallie  Acid,        ..........       1  ounce. 

Glycerin, 1     " 

Methylated  Alcohol,          .........       6  ounces. 

Mix  the  glycerin  and  spirit  and  add  to  the  pyro. 

No.  2. — Bromide  of  Potassium  (or  Ammonium), 60  grains. 

Liquor  Ammonia,  .880, 1  ounce. 

Glycerin, 1     " 

Water,       .........        ...5  ounces. 

The  above  stock  solutions  will  keep  any  length  of  time.  To  make  the  developer,  add  one  part 
of  No.  1  to  fifteen  parts  of  water,  and  label  this  bottle  D  (developer).  In  another  bottle  mix 
one  ounce  of  No.  2  with  fifteen  ounces  of  water,  and  label  it  A  (accelerator).  It  will  be  found 
convenient,  to  avoid  mistakes  in  the  imperfect  light  of  the  dark-room,  to  have  these  two  bottles 
of  different  shapes.  Either  of  the  above  solutions  will  keep  two  or  three  days.  When  required 
for  use,  pour  into  a  clean  glass  measure  equal  parts  of  D  and  A,  adding  the  A  last,  just  before 
using.  Place  the  dry,  exposed  plate  face  up  in  a  shallow  dish  or  tray,  and  pour  the  mixture 
steadily  over  the  plate,  avoiding  air-bubbles;  should  any  adhere  to  the  surface  of  the  plate, 
at  once  remove  them  with  the  finger  or  a  camel's-hair  brush  kept  for  the  purpose.  Rock  the 
dish  gently,  taking  care  to  keep  the  plate  well  covered  with  the  solution.  In  a  few  seconds 
the  image  will  appear,  and,  if  the  exposure  has  been  well  timed,  all  the  details  will  be  out 
and  the  development  complete  in  about  one  minute,  when  the  negative  should  be  well  washed 
under  the  tap  and  placed  at  once  in  the  fixing-bath.  Do  not  hurry  the  development,  but 
allow  the  plate  to  remain  in  the  solution,  after  all  the  details  are  visible,  until  the  required 
density  is  obtained.  With  this  developer  used  in  the  above  proportions  there  is  no  danger 
of  fog,  except  from  the  action  of  light.  If  on  the  application  of  the  mixed  developer  the 
image  flashes  out  and  the  details  in  the  shadows  appear  too  quickly,  it  will  indicate  that  the 
plate  has  been  over-exposed;  therefore  at  once  throw  off  the  mixed  developer,  and,  without 
stopping  to  wash  the  plate,  flood  it  with  D  alone,  when  the  development  will  be  checked, 
and  will  proceed  more  slowly,  while  the  image  gains  in  density.  If  too  slowly,  or  the 
negative  appears  to  be  getting  too  intense,  add  a  very  little  of  A.  There  will,  however, 
usually  be  sufficient  of  the  latter  left  on  the  plate  to  complete  the  development  with  the  simple 
addition  of  a  sufficient  quantity  of  solution  D.  A  very  little  experience  will  enable  the 


BROMO-GELATIN    EMULSION    WORK. 

available.  It  will  require  the  nicest  and  most  thoughtful  application  and 
handling,  hut  it  will  reward  you  for  your  care.  Mr.  Carbutt  has  reduced 
its  manipulation  to  a  very  fine  and  easy  system  by  his  method,  given  in 
the  notes  helow,  of  mixing  the  ingredients  as  they  are  about  to  be  used. 

operator  to  produce  a  good  printing  negative  from  a  plate  which,  if  developed  with  the  full 
proportion  of  A,  would  have  been  utterly  useless  from  over-exposure.  (In  very  warm, 
bright  weather  it  will,  perhaps,  be  found  an  advantage  to  use  rather  more  D  than  A  in  the 
mixed  developer,  giving  just  sufficient  exposure  to  avoid  hardness  in  the  negative.)  Under- 
exposure can  be  corrected  to  a  great  extent  by  increasing  the  proportions  of  A  in  the  mixed 
developer,  but  the  addition  should  be  made  at  once  before  the  development  has  proceeded 
too  far,  or  the  effect  will  be  to  increase  the  density  and  cause  too  much  contrast  in  the 
negative.  The  proportions  of  the  mixed  developer  can  be  varied  at  will  by  the  operator, 
according  to  the  character  of  the  results  he  wishes  to  produce. — B.  J.  EDWARDS. 

Pyrogallic  acid  during  the  past  year  has  obtained  an  evil  report;  and,  as  it  is  no  longer 
looked  upon  as  indispensable,  there  seems  some  chance  of  its  reputation  drifting  from  bad  to 
worse.  Now,  it  is  conceded  by  nearly  all  experienced  dry-piate  workers  that  alkaline  pyro- 
gallic  is  the  most  elastic  of  our  developers,  and  had  it  not  lately  acquired  a  character  for 
producing  yellow-brown  negatives  and  stained  films,  would  still  be  generally  preferred. 
The  cause  of  these  troubles  is  mainly  due  to  a  forced  and  rapid  development,  produced  by  a 
strong  alkaline  solution,  subject  to  rapid  oxidation,  and  insufficiently  restrained.  It  is  a  far 
better  plan  to  build  the  image  gradually,  when  both  color  and  gradation  will  be  improved 
to  a  wonderful  extent.  In  carrying  out  this  method,  a  four-grained  solution  of  the  crys- 
tallized neutral  sulphite  of  soda  will  be  found  very  useful.  This  is  to  be  used  for  all  opera- 
tions up  to  the  immersion  of  the  plate  in  the  alum  bath  before  fixing.  In  hot  weather  it  is 
valuable  also  as  a  reducer  of  the  temperature  of  water.  As  an  absorber  of  oxygen  it  prevents 
the  oxidation  of  the  pyro,  and  with  the  sulphate  formed  it  is  also  a  restrainer.  The  devel- 
oper thus  made  is  only  slightly  tinted  after  the  development  of  a  plate,  and  at  the  end  of 
many  minutes.  The  sulphite  does  not  seem,  however,  to  have  much  power  in  preventing  "  red 
and  green  fog."  This  effect,  when  it  occurs,  is  to  be  found  at  the  margins,  and  generally 
in  the  less  exposed  parts.  No  doubt  in  rocking  the  dish  these  portions  of  the  film  are  more 
affected  by  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  although  it  would  seem  that  different  samples  of  plates 
vary  much  in  their  liability  to  this  most  annoying  kind  of  stain,  which  may  be  contracted 
even  when  this  developer  is  only  tinted  by  the  oxidized  pyrogallic.  Dilute  hydrochloric 
acid  does  not  seem  to  have  a  very  energetic  action  upon  the  stains.  Perchloride  of  iron  acts 
readily,  but  there  are  some  objections  to  its  use.  It  has  also  a  tendency  to  deposit  an  insolu- 
ble body,  in  appearance  like  the  hydrate.  A  very  good  mixture  for  removing  the  color 
from  uniformly  stained  films — especially  when  the  negative  is  too  dense — will  be  found  in  a 
saturated  solution  of  alum,  to  every  four  ounces  of  which  one  drachm  of  hydrochloric  acid 
has  been  added.  This  removes  the  stain,  changing  the  color  of  the  image  to  a  blacker  tint, 
and,  when  allowed  to  act  for  several  minutes,  reduces  the  density  considerably.  Indeed,  it 
might  seem  to  be  a  better  plan  to  run  the  risk  of  getting  too  much  density  during  the  de- 
velopment, than,  fearing  this,  have  to  resort  to  intensifying  after  fixing.  This  mixture  is 
not  a  new  one,  as  at  first  I  supposed  it  might  be,  for  it  had  been  employed  to  remove  pyro 
stain  by  others  prior  to  its  use  occurring  to  me.  As  a  reducer  of  the  intensity  of  pyro-de- 
veloped  negatives,  it  may  be  new  to  many. — HERBERT  B.  BERKELEY. 


284 


WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 


All  these  "  wrinkles  and  dodges  "  in  practice  come  in  particularly  good 
now  as  we  are  entering  this  new  arena  of  practice,  and  if  we  would  have 
abundant  success,  we  must  be  on  the  alert  for  every  sign  and  signal  which 
comes  from  those  who  are  more  experienced  than  we,  and  who  are  so 

I  have  become  convinced  that  the  method  of  adding  the  ammonia  and  bromide  by  degrees 
to  the  pyro  is  better  than  adding  a  nearly  or  full  dose  at  once,  and  recommend  the  return 
FIG.  88.  to  the  use  of  the  dropping-bottle  where  there  is 

any  doubt  of  the  right  exposure.  To  insure  the 
right  bottle  being  in  its  right  place  when  wanted, 
I  have  devised  what  I  call  a  "  developing  cruet," 
and  which  any  one  can  construct  for  themselves. 
I  take  four  one-ounce  wide-mouth  bottles,  such 
as  the  iodides  and  bromides  come  in,  fit  them 
with  fine,  smooth  corks,  long  enough  to  enter 
the  neck  half  an  inch,  and  project  about  the 
same ;  prepare  the  corks  by  immersing  them  in 
melted  paraffin  for  a  few  minute's,  remove,  and  wipe  off  the  excess;  bore  a  hole  through 
them  that  will  allow  one  of  the  straight  glass  dropping-tubes,  with  rubber  nipple,  to  be 
fitted  to  each,  so  as  to  reach  within  a  quarter  of  an  inch  of  the  bottom,  and  your  dropping- 
bottles  are  complete.  To  insure  against  their  being  misplaced  when  wanted,  I  arrange 
them  on  a  base  of  wood  3  x  9x  J  inches  thick,  with  countersunk  holes  one-half  inch  apart  to 
receive  them;  cement  them  in  their  places  either  with  melted  shellac  or  pitch,  or  thick 
varnish  ;  letter  each  bottle  with  any  black  color  that  will  not  wash  off,  with  letters  to 
indicate  their  contents;  then  screw  down  the  base  in  a  position  to  be  within  easy  reach  of 
the  developing  trough.  The  cut  will  explain  the  "  cruet "  when  finished. 
P  contains  concentrated  pyro  solution. 

Pyro,         ............       1  ounce. 


Glycerin,  ..... 

Water, 

Alcohol,    ..... 
Wood  Naphtha, 
A  B  contains  ammonia  and  bromide. 


3  ounces. 

4  " 

1  ounce. 


Concentrated  Ammonia,   .........       1  ounce. 

Bromide  of  Ammonium    .........     60  grains. 

Glycerin, 1  ounce. 

B  contains  plain  bromine. 

Ammonium  or  Potassium  Bromide,          ......  120  grains. 

Water, 2  ounces. 

A  contains  plain  ammonia. 

Concentrated  Ammonia, 1  ounce. 

Glycerin,  ...........       1      " 

The  dropping-bottle  need  only  be  kept  about  half  full  for  use,  replenishing  as  occasion 
requires.  In  a  glass-stoppered  bottle  mix  one  ounce  of  P  with  twenty-one  ounces  of  water, 
and  label  pyro  developer,  which  will  be  about  two  grains  to  the  ounce.  To  develop  a  plate, 


BROMO-GELATIN    EMULSION    WORK.  285 

generous  as  to  give  us  the  benefit  of  their  experience.  Indeed,  it  is  as  re- 
markable as  it  is  commendable,  to  witness  how  very  enthusiastically  this 
promising  process  has  been  worked  out  to  successful  results,  with  the  full 
determination  on  the  part  of  the  industrious  ones  to  give  all  they  know 
freely  to  the  fraternity.  So  may  it  ever  be. 

say  one  of  5x8  size,  measure  out  three  ounces  of  pyro  developer,  lay  the  plate  in  a  shallow, 
black  tray,  and  pour  over  it  the  plain  pyro;  into  the  measure  drop  three  drops  of  A  B, 
return  the  pyro  to  the  measure  and  back  over  the  plate  ;  if  in  fifteen  or  twenty  seconds  the 
image  appears,  and  that  slowly,  at  once  drop  into  the  graduate  three  drops  more  of  A  B, 
and  mix  the  developer  with  it  as  before,  and  return  to  the  plate  ;  if  the  plate  has  had  the 
right  exposure  it  will  continue  to  develop  with  an  even  pace,  and  when  the  shadows  are 
just  grayed  over,  stop  developing,  rinse  off  with  cold  water,  and,  if  temperature  is  high, 
place  in  a  saturated  solution  of  alum  for  from  one  to  two  minutes,  then  rinse  and  place  in  a 
fixing  solution  of  hyposulphite  of  soda  one  part,  and  water  six.  When  fixed,  wash  for 
about  the  same  time  as  for  a  collodion  negative,  and  again  place  in  the  alum  solution  for 
five  minutes,  to  eliminate  the  hypo  (I  consider  the  credit  is  due  Mr.  John  R.  demons  for 
suggesting  the  use  of  alum  in  photography  as  an  eliminator  of  hypo) ;  again  wash  and  dry 
spontaneously.  In  case  of  a  plate  showing  no  indication  of  an  image  in  half  a  minute, 
then,  instead  of  adding  more  of  A  B,  add  the  same  number  of  drops  of  A,  and  a  further 
addition  if  required,  till  five  or  six  to  each  ounce  of  the  developer  has  been  added;  if  this 
fails  to  bring  out  an  image,  a  very  rare  case  indeed,  then  the  plate  is  under-exposed.  Again, 
over-exposure  will  be  indicated  if,  on  addition  of  one  drop  of  A  B  to  each  ounce  of  developer, 
the  image  starts  pretty  rapidly  in  eight  to  ten  seconds,  in  which  case  to  each  ounce  of  developer 
in  the  tray  add  five  drops  of  P,  and  one  to  three  drops  of  B,  in  one  corner,  and  mix  with 
the  developer.  These  are  the  check-reins,  so  to  say,  to  hold  in  check  the  over-exposure  and 
permit  a  good  negative  to  be  obtained,  that  with  a  large  dose  of  ammonia  added  at  first 
would  have  been  very  difficult  to  secure.  The  foregoing  mode  of  development  is  recom- 
mended principally  for  out-door  exposures.  For  portraiture,  where  the  light  is  more  under 
control,  two  or  three  drops  of  A  B  may  be  added  to  each  ounce  of  developer  before  flowing 
over  the  plate;  and  for  known  short  exposure,  five  drops  of  A  B  may  be  mixed  with  each 
ounce  of  developer  before  flowing  over  the  plate. — JOHN  CARBUTT. 

I  have  just  tried  a  modified  developer  for  gelatin  plates  after  a  formula  given  to  me 
by  Mr.  R.  Schlegel,  and  found  it  to  work  so  well  that  I  publish  it  here :  Mix  one 
ounce  of  the  strongest  liquid  ammonia,  one  ounce  of  a  solution  of  fifty  grains  of  bromide  of 
potassium  in  one  ounce  of  water,  and  one  ounce  of  eau  de  javelle  (this  is  a  compound  of  one 
part  each  of  chloride  of  lime  and  potash  in  five  parts  of  water) ;  add  twenty  grains  of  this 
solution  to  a  solution  of  one  grain  of  pyrogallic  acid  in  400  grains  of  water.  The  mixture 
develops  a  clear  and  intense  negative,  and  a  little  over-exposure  will  not  do  so  much  harm 
as  with  other  developers.  It  is  now  well  known  that  an  exposed  gelatin  plate  will  give  a 
thinner  negative  if  developed  after  some  time  than  if  developed  at  once.  The  latent  image 
will  keep  for  a  longer  time  if  the  plate  be  dipped  (and  kept)  in  water  after  exposing.  In 
some  cases  this  may  be  found  useful. — DR.  E.  LIESEQANG. 

Should  the  negative  not  develop  vigorously,  the  development  is  forced  by  increasing  the 
proportion  of  ammonia,  or  sometimes  that  of  pyrogallic  acid.  Though  promoting  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  details,  this  often  causes  fogging,  the  negative  remaining  thin  and  weak.  It 


286  WILSON'S    PHOTOGKAPHICS 

334.  If  the  exposure  has  been  too  short,  that  is  to  say,  if  in  thirty  sec- 
onds the  high-lights  do  not  yet  appear,  add  drop  by  drop,  and  with  the 
greatest  precaution  a  little  of  the  solution  A.  If  the  exposure  has  been 
too  long,  that  is  to  say,  if  the  high-lights  appear  suddenly  and  before  the 
thirty  seconds,  add  without  delay  a  few  drops  of  the  solution  B.  In  order 
that  the  addition  of  this  solution  B  should  produce  the  desired  effect,  it 
is  necessary  that  it  should  be  done  as  soon  as  the  excess  of  exposure  is 
discovered.  In  this  case  the  development  taking  place  with  the  greatest 
rapidity,  it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  save  the  print,  to  retard  the  develop- 
ment from  the  start.  If  you  wish  to  give  more  intensity  to  the  negative, 
add  a  few  cubic  centimeters  (one  cubic  centimeter  is  equal  to  sixteen 
minims)  of  the  solution  of  pyrogallic  acid  ~No.  1.  Now  finish  as  just  ex- 
plained after  the  iron  development.  Thus  with  pyrogallic  acid  it  is  pos- 
sible, and  this  is  of  very  great  importance,  to  correct  the  excess  or  the 
insufficiency  of  exposure.  To  reach  the  same  result  with  iron,  it  is  nec- 
essary to  operate  in  the  following  manner :  If  the  exposure  has  lasted  any 
too  long,  as  soon  as  you  perceive  it,  add  at  once  a  few  drops  of  bromide 

may  be  remedied  by  increasing  the  quantity  of  potassium  bromide  in  the  same  ratio  as  that 
of  ammonia,  thus  ultimately  correcting  defects  due  to  errors  of  exposure  or  faults  in  the 
emulsion.  A  milky  veil  is  sometimes  seen  when  the  ferrous-oxalate  developer  is  employed. 
It  is  due  to  a  precipitate  of  oxalate  of  lime  formed  by  the  oxalic  acid  of  the  developer  coming 
into  contact  with  the  lime  of  the  hard  spring  water  in  which  the  plates  have  been  washed. 
With  the  pyrogallic  developer  this  chalky  precipitate  does  not  occur,  even  when  spring  wa- 
ter is  used,  for  caustic  ammonia  only  precipitates  lime  after  a  lapse  of  some  time.  It  is. 
however,  always  preferable  to  use  distilled  water  for  the  purpose  of  washing — or,  at  least, 
rain  water.  As  a  remedy  against  solarization,  avoid  as  much  as  possible  too  great  contrasts 
in  the  image  to  be  produced  ;  place  the  camera  so  that  no  reflection  of  light  can  penetrate  the 
objective  ;  do  not  prolong  the  exposure  more  than  necessary  ;  stop  the  development  as  soon  as 
possible,  and  blacken  the  interior  of  the  dark  slide  and  the  back  of  the  plate. — W.  P.  BOLTON. 
334.  I  name  the  ingredients  of  an  intensifying  solution  which  I  have  found  exceedingly 
useful  in  my  hands.  There  is  nothing  new  about  it,  save  in  the  combination  of  the  chemi- 
cals, so  far  as  I  am  aware  ;  but  there  is  great  latitude  in  their  use,  and  by  varying  the  pro- 
portions wide  diversity  of  effects  may  be  produced.  It  is  needless  to  give  proportions.  I 
therefore  leave  the  reader  to  experiment,  and  find  them  to  suit  himself— now  more  of  this 
and  less  of  that — as  circumstances  may  demand.  Take  bichloride  of  mercury,  iodide  of  po- 
tassium, and  cyanide  of  potassium,  and  mix  with  intelligence.  With  these  three  old-fash- 
ioned agents  capital  results  may  be  got,  and  the  solution  may  be  used  again  and  again  till 
exhausted.  I  reduce  over-intensity  with  chloride  of  copper,  cautiously  followed  by  ammo- 
nia ;  but  the  less  there  is  to  reduce  the  better.  It  will  be  found  that  a  surface  deposit  takes 
place  upon  most  negatives  when  intensified,  but  this  is  easily  removed  by  a  gentle  rubbing 
with  the  finger  or  a  soft  brush.  This  may  be  done  also  with  advantage  after  all  washings. — 
G.  G.  MITCHELL. 


BKOMO-GELATIN    EMULSION    WORK.  287 

of  ammonium  at  ten  per  cent.  If  the  exposure  has  heen  too  short,  add 
to  the  developer,  as  soon  as  possible,  the  half  or  the  whole  of  its  volume 
of  ordinary  water,  then  continue  the  development  until  all  the  details 
have  appeared.  This  large  addition  of  water,  which  at  first  sight  may 
appear  rather  strange,  does  certainly  retard  the  development  in  a  slight 
degree,  but  not  as  much  as  might  be  supposed  before  making  the  experi- 
ment. However,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  in  order  to  prevent  the  hard- 
ening of  the  lights  and  to  preserve  all  the  harmony  of  the  negative.  If 
you  wish,  during  the  development,  to  increase  the  intensity  of  the  nega- 
tive, as  you  have  done  in  the  case  of  the  pyrogallic  acid,  add  to  the  de- 
veloper some  more  of  the  iron  bath  with  a  little  of  the  bromide  of  am- 
monium. The  same  result  is  obtained,  as  has  been  said,  by  Mr.  Kennett, 
in  making  this  addition  to  the  hyposulphite  bath ;  but  the  trouble  result- 
ing from  this  in  the  fixing  solution  renders  the  first  method  preferable. 
To  end  this  very  important  question  of  development,  please  let  it  be  said 
that  a  concentrated  solution  of  bisulphide  of  soda,  which  has  remained 
for  fifteen  minutes  in  granulated  zinc,  and  to  which  has  been  added  after 

Since  the  adoption  of  the  gelatin  process  in  lieu  of  collodion,  one  of  the  troubles  which, 
when  it  occurred,  has  been  the  most  difficult  to  cure,  has  been  the  occasional  production  of 
too  intense  a  negative.  I  have  now  to  offer  a  remedy  which  I  have  found  thoroughly  effec- 
tive, reducing  in  an  even  manner,  and  without  destroying  the  half-tones,  a  negative  which 
had  resisted  even  strong  cyanide.  The  agent  I  employ  is  "Holmes'  Ozone  Bleach" — an 
article  sold  for  laundry  and  disinfectant  purposes  at  eightpence  per  quart  bottle.  I  use  this 
diluted  with  about  four  times  its  bulk  of  water  in  a  dish  ;  greater  or  less  strength  may,  of 
course,  be  used  as  desired.  If  to  bring  down  locally  any  particular  part  of  the  negative,  a 
little  of  the  undiluted  liquid  may  be  poured  on  the  plate  already  swilled  with  the  weaker 
solution ;  but  in  this  case  the  tap  must  be  handy  to  stop  the  action  quickly  when  wanted. 
The  same  solution  (perhaps  more  diluted)  may  be  used  to  discharge  the  last  trace  of  hypo 
from  the  plate  for  those  who  prefer  to  intensify  with  silver  and  pyro. — W.  E.  DEBENHAM. 

The  thorough  elimination  of  hyposulphite  of  soda  from  gelatin  negatives  ought  to  be 
done  with  a  great  deal  more  care  than  is  generally  the  case,  and  many  good  negatives 
are  lost  through  inattention  to  this  important  point.  The  negatives,  after  having  been 
thoroughly  rinsed  under  the  tap,  ought  to  be  laid,  face  down,  in  a  dish,  or,  what  is  better,  a 
zinc  trough  made  with  sloping  sides,  the  bottom  being  narrower  than  the  top.  A  small  hole 
near  the  bottom  of  one  side  will  let  out  the  water,  which  should  be  run  in  from  a  tap  \n  a 
constant  stream  for  an  hour  or  two  upon  the  negatives.  The  outlet  should,  of  course,  be 
less  than  the  inflow  in  order  to  keep  the  trough  full  and  covering  the  negatives.  Having 
been  annoyed  by  the  long  time  my  gelatin  negatives  took  to  dry,  I  hit  upon  the  following 
plan  by  which  they  may  be  thoroughly  dried  in  a  few  hours.  It  is  simply  to  set  the  nega- 
tives in  sunshine,  and  with  a  good  breeze  it  will  be  found  that  they  dry  thus  both  quicklv 
and  well.  Care  must,  however,  be  taken  to  guard  against  rain  falling  on  the  half-dried 
plates,  which,  if  it  occur,  would  completely  spoil  them. — JOHN  JACKSON. 


288  WILSON'S   PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

iiltration  a  small  quantity  of  pyrogallic  acid  in  crystals,  forms  an  excel- 
lent developer  for  gelatino-bromide  plates.  The  use  of  granulated  zinc 
is  not  indispensable. 

The  beginner  will  doubtless  find  this  developer  very  convenient,  as  it 
dispenses  with  the  use  of  ammonia,  which  is  rather  difficult  to  use ;  but 
when  he  shall  have  acquired  more  experience,  he  will  not  hesitate,  in  order 
to  increase  the  intensity  and  correct  the  exposure,  to  have  recourse  to  the 
two  drop-bottles  of  ammonia  and  bromide  already  recommended  for  the 
alkaline  development.  Beer,  used  in  the  proportions  of  one-fourth  or  one- 
half,  in  the  developer  produces  results  rather  remarkable  and  analogous 
to  those  of  the  bromide ;  it  gives  brilliancy  and  intensity  to  the  negative, 
but  retards  slightly  the  development.  The  sucrate  of  lime,  recommended 
by  Mr.  Davanne,  added  in  small  quantity  either  to  the  iron  or  to  the  pyro- 
gallic acid,  gives  nearly  the  same  results  as  the  bromide  and  the  beer,  but 
appears  to  have  over  these  two  substances  the  advantage  of  not  retarding 
the  development.  When  used,  it  is  necessary  to  filter  the  developer  after 
it  has  been  added  to  it. 

335.  RETOUCHING  AND  VARNISHING. — Ordinarily,  the  plate,  well  treated 
as  I  have  just  indicated,  and  especially  wiien  placed  in  the  ten  per  cent, 
alum  solution,  may  be  readily  retouched  without  using  gum.    If,  however, 
the  pencil  should  not  take  on  certain  portions,  they  should  be  lightly 
rubbed  with  a  small  tuft  very  slightly  moistened  with  the  liquid  used  for 
retouching  varnish.     The  negative,  well  retouched,  entirely  finished,  and 
perfectly  dry,  is  varnished  in  the  usual  manner  after  slightly  heating. 

336.  PRINTING  THE  POSITIVE. — The  gelatin  negative  being  more  opaque 

335.  Next  to  good  gelatin  plates  is  a  good  varnish  to  protect  them  from  the  weather. 
Damp  is  known  to  spoil  them  quickly,  and  a  varnish  that  has  the  following  qualities  is  a 
good  one :  First,  that  it  shall  perfectly  protect  the  gelatin  film  from  damp  ;  secondly,  that  it 
will  not  become  tacky  and  stick  to  the  printing  paper  in  the  hottest  sun  ;  and,  lastly,  that  it 
can  he  removed  without  danger  to  the  film,  if  it  be  required  to  strengthen  a  negative  that 
is  considered  to  be  too  weak  after  varnishing.     The  formula  I  give  below  will  do  all  these. 

Take  methylated  spirit  thirty  ounces,  place  it  in  a  stone  bottle  and  add  one  ounce  of  shel- 
lac;  then  place  the  bottle  in  hot  water  for  fifteen  minutes,  and  well  shake.  Next  add  gum- 
sandarac  two  and  a  half  ounces,  well  powdered,  and  gum-benzoin  two  ounces.  Shake  well  at 
different  times  for  a  few  minute?,  arid  let  stand  a  day.  Then  filter,  and  it  will  be  found  to  make 
a  varnish  that  will  flow  well  and  possess  the  qualities  I  have  described. — GEORGE  WILLIS. 

336.  Print  farther  or  darker  than  wet  plates,  and  do  not  tone  so  far  as  prints  from  wet  plates. 
My  printing-bath  is  as  follows:    Silver,  sixty  grains  to  one  ounce  of  water;    to  this  add 
nitrate  of  ammonia  until  the  solution  indicates  eighty  grains;  make  the  bath  slightly  acid  in 
cold  weather  ;  float  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  minutes ;  fume  forty  minutes. 


BROMO-GELATIN    EMULSION    WORK.  289 

than  the  collodion  negative,  in  order  to  judge  finally  the  degree  of  inten- 
sity necessary  to  give  it  to  obtain  a  good  positive  print,  it  is  indispensable 
to  make  some  previous  trials  on  paper.  A  good  gelatin  negative,  like  one 
made  with  collodion,  should  be  brilliant,  rich  in  details,  full  of  relief,  very 
strong,  but  at  the  same  time  the  lights  should  be  transparent.  The  gelatin 
process  lends  itself  marvellously  to  obtaining  a  negative  which  certainly 
could  not  be  produced  with  the  same  qualities  by  the  wet-collodion 
process.  For  printing  the  negative,  it  is  necessary  to  use  the  customary 
precautions  and  means  to  retard  or  increase  the  action  of  light  on  those 
portions  of  the  negative  that  might  require  them. 

337.  Although  the  instructions  so  far  given  are  rather  lengthy,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  render  them  still  more  complete  by  adding  the  following 
remarks,  the  importance  of  which  will  certainly  not  escape  those  who 
have  already  practised  this  new  process.  For  gelatin  work,  we  may,  in 
fact  it  is  even  necessary,  use  more  light  than  is  generally  done.  It  is 
essential,  to  make  good  work,  to  see  very  clearly  what  is  being  done.  The 
fog  which  sometimes  occurs,  does  not  arise,  as  much  as  it  is  supposed,  from 

My  toning-bath  consists  of  acetate  of  soda,  one  hundred  and  twenty  grains;  nitrate  of 
uranium,  fifteen  grains;  water,  sixteen  ounces;  neutralize  gold  one  grain  to  an  ounce  of 
water;  also  neutralize  the  uranium. 

It  has  been  stated  that  dry  plates  would  not  stand  the"  heated  term  of  the  summer  season. 
I  can  certify  that  they  will  stand  the  heat,  as  I  have  tested  the  same  to  my  entire  satisfac- 
tion, having  exposed  them  with  the  thermometer  at  104°  in  the  shade,  and  they  developed 
perfectly  clear,  and  where  a  wet  plate  would  dry  and  fog  from  the  heat. — C.  F.  MOELKE. 

337.  Fogging  invariably  makes  its  appearance  when  the  emulsion  is  prepared  with  an  ex- 
cess of  silver  nitrate.  Many  kinds  of  gelatin  are  liable  to  give  fog  when  they  have  an  alka- 
line reaction.  Fogging  is  also  caused  by  continuous  digesting  at  too  high  a  temperature, 
by  the  addition  of  too  much  ammonia,  or  by  too  long  or  too  great  heating  with  the  same 
substance.  It  may  be  cured  by  adding  bromide  of  potassium  or  a  few  drops  of  the  tincture 
of  iodine.  Emulsions  which  are  inclined  to  fog  are  best  cured  by  being  washed  first  with 
a  dilute  solution  of  bichromate  and  then  with  water.  Due  attention  must  be  paid  to  the 
mixing  of  the  ingredients  in  the  required  proportions,  and  at  the  proper  temperature.  By 
the  addition  often  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  the  bromide  of  silver  is  brought  to  a  pale  condition. 
In  employing  bromide  of  potassium  it  must  be  chemically  pure;  by  using  it  in  excess  of  the 
silver,  a  much  more  sensitive  emulsion  ensues.  As  to  the  quantity  of  gelatin  in  the  more 
fluid  emulsions,  the  bromide  of  silver  is  granulous  and  green,  and,  unless  care  be  taken, 
likely  to  separate  out,  while  with  a  larger  amount  of  gelatin  it  is  finer  and  paler.  With  re- 
gard to  the  quality  of  gelatins,  those  of  Nelson's  are  the  purest,  although  not  so  firm  as 
others — Swinburne's,  and  those  of  French  and  German  manufacture,  for  instance.  Imper- 
fect washing  often  gives  hard,  impure  negatives,  while  thorough  and  continuous  washing 
greatly  improves  the  emulsion. — DR.  D.  YON  MONCKHOVEN. 
19 


290  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

an  excess  of  light  in  the  dark-room.  The  important  point  is  that  this 
light  should  be  of  a  particular  nature.  It  should  be  of  a  decided  red,  or 
ruby  color.  To  avoid  fog,  the  attention  of  the  photographer  should  be 
directed  especially  to  the  choice  of  a  good  emulsion,  to  the  careful  exami- 
nation of  his  chemicals,  to  his  camera,  and  principally  to  his  holders,  into 
which  the  least  trace  of  light  should  not  penetrate.  It  is  well  understood 
that  this  applies  also  to  the  dark-room.  A  large  black  cover  over  the 
tube  of  the  objective,  the  camera,  and  the  frame,  is  also  indispensable, 
especially  for  outside  work.  The  operator  should  not  forget,  also,  when 
developing,  to  measure  the  quantity  of  bromide  by  the  sensitiveness  of 
the  emulsion  and  the  time  of  the  exposure. 

338.  kelson's  gelatin  "No.  1  appears  to  be  the  best  for  making  the  emul- 
sion, but  in  summer  especially  it  is  well  to  add  to  it  a  firmer  gelatin 
which  sets  more  readily ;    several  French  gelatins  possess  this  quality. 
The  addition  of  fish-glue  presents  also  certain  advantages ;  it  gives  more 
permeability  to  the  film,  more  sharpness,  and  a  more  agreeable  color  to 
the  negative.     To  obtain  a  good  emulsion  easy  to  follow  by  transparency 
during  development,  the  coating  should  not  be  too  thick,  and  the  weight 
of  the  gelatin  should  be  the  three-fourths  of  that  of  the  bromide  of  silver. 
For  easy  manipulation,  the  best  proportion  to  observe  between  the  bro- 
mide and  the  silver  is  that  of  two  to  three. 

339.  In  the  manufacture  of  the  emulsion,  sufficient  importance  is  not 
given  to  the  kind  of  bromide  used.     All  bromides  do  not  give  the  same 

339.  A  few  hints :  Should  there  be  any  signs  of  frilling  at  any  stage  of  developing  or  fix- 
ing, which  will  rarely  or  never  be  the  case  with  these  plates,  flood  the  plate  with  a  saturated 
solution  of  alum,  wash  well,  and  proceed.  Trays  for  developing  may  be  made  of  ordinary 
back-board,  nailed  with  small  finish  nails,  and  covered  inside  and  out  with  a  composition 
made  by  melting  together  equal  parts  of  yellow  beeswax  and  common  rosin.  Trays  and 
measures  should  be  rinsed  out  after  developing  each  plate.  Care  must  be  taken  to  wash  the 
plate  very  free  from  the  hypo,  and  for  this  purpose  it  is  well  to  immerse  the  plate  for  a  few 
minutes  in  a  saturated  solution  of  alum,  after  the  washing,  which  will  decompose  any  hypo 
remaining.  The  following  is  a  better  mode  of  intensifying  :  Flow  the  plate  with  a  twenty- 
grain  solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury  till  the  intensity  appears  right;  wash  well  and  flow 
with  ammonia,  about  one  part  to  ten  of  water.  Eepeat,  if  necessary,  with  thorough  wash- 
ing. A  yellow  or  brown  discoloration  of  the  film  under  the  mercury  indicates  the  presence 
of  hypo.  Alum  has  been  much  use'd  in  working  gelatin  plates,  but  hitherto  simply  to 
harden  the  film  and  prevent  frilling.  But  recently  it  has  been  found  that  alum  removed  the 
traces  of  hypo  which  appear  to  escape  the  usual  washing.  It  is  therefore  well  to  immerse 
the  plate  in  a  saturated  solution  of  alum,  after  fixing  and  washing  well.  The  British  Jour- 
nal advocates  intensifying  with  silver  and  pyro  after  the  use  of  the  alum  ;  but  it  is  best  not 


BKOMO-GELATIN   EMULSION   WORK.  291 

effects.  The  most  rapid  and  the  best  seems  to  be  that  of  ammonium ; 
but  used  alone,  it  has  sometimes  a  tendency  to  produce  gray  prints.  Bro- 
mide of  zinc  has  precisely  the  opposite  qualities.  Bromide  of  lithium 
gives  a  certain  adherence  to  the  film,  and  the  bromide  composed  of  potas- 
sium, cadmium,  and  zinc,  used  by  Mr.  Chardon  in  the  collodion  emul- 
sion, gives  to  the  gelatin  negative,  specially  when  developed  with  pyro- 
gallic  acid,  a  very  rich  tone ;  strengthened  by  bichloride  of  mercury  and 
cyanide  of  silver,  it  produces  results  of  remarkable  beauty. 

340.  Transparencies  for  lantern  use,  collodion  transfers,  and  other  en- 
larging processes,  are  rapidly  and  easily  made  by  the  bromo-gelatin  pro- 

to  be  too  sanguine  of  silver  intensification  even  after  alum,  as  the  mercury  and  ammonia 
method  is  simple,  and  gives  permanent  results,  and  there  is  at  least  a  liability  of  the  silver 
combining  with  the  gelatin  and  bringing  about  a  gradual  discoloration. — C.  F.  RICHARDSON. 
Be  very  careful  as  to  any  actinic  light  in  your  dark-room,  and  use  a  ruby-colored  lantern 
or  lamp  (the  top  well  covered  with  a  dark  tinned  cone),  if  necessary.  Before  putting  away 
the  negative  to  dry,  place  the  plate  in  a  dish  of  water,  film  down,  one  end  raised,  and  allow 
to  soak  for  half  an  hour,  and,  lastly,  rub  with  a  tuft  of  cotton  to  remove  any  sand  or  sediment 
that  may  have  remained  on  the  film.  Should  you  desire  to  dry  the  plate  quickly,  soak  in 
alcohol  from  ten  to  fifteen  minutes,  and  set  aside  to  dry.  Heat  may  be  employed  in  varnishing 
the  negative,  which  must  be  perfectly  dry.  Make  a  proof-print  before  varnishing,  to  see 
that  the  negative  is  of  proper  strength.  Keep  your  hands  free  from  hypo  while  developing, 
or  fog  will  be  the  result.  If  your  negatives  have  too  much  contrast,  weaken  tne  developer 
by  adding  water.  Over-exposure  is  preferable  to  under-exposure,  and  we  invariably 
recommend  a  second  sitting  where  the  latter  has  occurred.  Keep  your  solutions  cool,  as 
heat,  while  the  plate  is  moist,  will  dissolve  the  film.  The  strengthening,  reducing,  fixing, 
and  alum  solutions  can  be  repeatedly  used,  but  require  changing  when  they  become  too  much 
discolored. — F.  W.  GUERIN. 

340.  For  a  dense  gelatin  emulsion  suitable  for  printing  transparencies,  the  following  formula 
has  given  me  better  results  than  any  I  have  yet  tried,  and  I  give  it  in  the  hope  that  it  may  be 
useful  to  others  who  are  engaged  in  this  class  of  work.  Formula  for  three  ounces  of  emulsion  • 

Bromide  of  Potassium,    .........     44  grains. 

Iodide  of  Potassium,        .........       1  grain. 

Nitrate  of  Silver, 60  grains. 

Nelson's  No.  1  Gelatin, 70       " 

Dilute  Nitric  Acid,  .........       5  drops. 

Beer, 1  drachm. 

Strong  Ammonia,     ..........     15  drops. 

The  beer  in  the  above  formula  is  composed  of  four  ounces  of  ordinary  bitter  beer  with  two 
ounces  of  alcohol  added  to  make  it  keep,  and  the  dilute  nitric  acid  by  adding  one  drachm 
of  strong  nitric  acid  to  one  ounce  of  distilled  water.  To  make  the  emulsion,  place  the 
bromide  and  iodide  in  a  beaker  of  suitable  size,  and  then  add  one  drachm  of  beer,  three 
drachms  of  water,  and  ten  grains  of  gelatin.  Now  weigh  sixty  grains  of  gelatin  and 
completely  immerse  it  in  any  vessel  of  cold  water;  let  it  remain  for  two  or  three  minutes  (not 
longer,  or  it  would  absorb  too  much  water),  and  then  turn  it,  out  on  to  a  hair  sieve  to  drain. 


292  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

cess.  The  film  being  so  delicately  soft  and  structureless  makes  them  par- 
ticularly beautiful  and  desirable.  The  preparation  of  the  emulsion  for 
such  work  must  be  attended  with  unusual  care  as  to  material  and  temper- 
ature. But  if  good  results  are  desirable,  then  all  the  care  they  need  to 
produce  them  is  reasonable. 

By  the  time  this  has  been  done  the  gelatin  and  bromide  in  the  beaker  will  be  ready  to  dissolve. 
To  effect  this  take  a  tin  saucepan  or  can  of  about  the  capacity  of  one  quart;  fill  it  two-thirds 
full  with  water,  and  in  this  place  the  beaker,  which  must  have  something  put  for  it  to  rest 
upon  in  order  that  it  may  not  sink  too  deeply  in  the  water.  Now  place  the  saucepan  over  a 
Bunsen  burner,  or  even  on  an  ordinary  fire,  and  raise  the  temperature  of  the  water  to  140° 
F.  Whilst  this  is  being  done  weigh  out  the  silver,  dissolve  it  in  half  an  ounce  of  distilled 
water,  and  add  five  drops  of  diluted  nitric  acid.  When  the  water  in  the  saucepan  has 
reached  the  required  temperature  remove  it  from  the  gas,  and  then  add  the  silver  solution 
to  the  bromized  gelatin.  This  can  be  best  effected  by  one  of  the  well-known  spray  producers, 
and  as  this  is  a  little  contrivance  that  any  one  may  easily  make  for  himself,  the  operator  will 
do  well  to  provide  himself  with  one.  Should,  however,  one  of  these  be  not  at  hand,  a 
dropping-tube  will  do  nearly  as  well.  In  either  case  the  silver  must  be  added  a  little  at  a 
time  with  constant  stirring,  and  for  stirring,-a  flat  slip  of  glass  from  half  to  three-quarters 
of  an  inch  broad  will  be  found  better  than  a  round  rod.  When  all  the  silver  has  been 
added  the  pan  must  be  again  put  over  the  gas  and  the  water  brought  to  boiling-point.  This 
will  take  about  five  minutes,  and  during  this  time  the  emulsion  must  be  pretty  constantly 
stirred.  As  soon  as  the  water  boils,  the  gas  may  be  put  out  and  the  pan  removed.  Now  add 
the  remaining  sixty  grains  of  gelatin,  stir  for  half  a  minute,  and  then  drop  in,  with  constant 
stirring,  fifteen  drops  of  strong  ammonia.  After  this  the  emulsion  must  be  immediately 
poured  into  a  six-  or  eight-ounce  bottle  and  be  thoroughly  shaken.  Now  pour  cold  water 
very  carefully  into  the  pan  until  the  thermometer  registers  140°.  It  is  a  matter  of  the 
greatest  importance  that  the  temperature  be  nicely  regulated  at  this  point,  because  if  higher 
than  that  stated  fog  is  pretty  sure  to  be  the  result,  and  if  much  lower  the  emulsion  will 
probably  be  very  slow.  The  bottle  of  emulsion  must  then  be  returned  to  the  warm  water 
and  set  aside  for  an  hour  or  longer  to  cool  gradually.  If  the  bottle  be  enclosed  in  a  canister 
with  a  perforated  bottom,  it  will  be  found  a  great  convenience,  as  light  may  then  be  admitted 
into  the  operating-room  without  any  fear  of  its  injuring  the  emulsion.  At  the  expiration 
of  an  hour  or  an  hour  and  a  half  the  temperature  will  have  sunk  to  80°.  If  it  have  not 
done  so  a  little  cold  water  may  be  poured  into  the  pan  until  the  thermometer  registers  that 
degree,  or  even  a  little  lower.  The  emulsion  must  be  left  for  ten  minutes  longer,  and  then 
it  will  be  ready  for  the  next  operation,  viz.,  the  removal  of  the  soluble  salts.  This  may  be 
most  conveniently  effected  by  precipitating  it  in  alcohol.  To  succeed  in  this  operation,  three 
points  should  be  particularly  attended  to:  1.  The  emulsion  must  be  tolerably  concentrated; 
that  is  to  say,  no  more  water  than  necessary  should  have  been  used  in  its  composition.  2. 
The  temperature  must  be  low.  3.  The  alcohol  must  not  be  used  too  sparingly.  .  The  tempera- 
ture, then,  having  sunk  sufficiently  low,  put  five  ounces  of  methylated  alcohol  into  a  glass 
beaker,  and  into  this  pour  the  emulsion  in  a  thin,  continuous  stream,  stirring  at  the  same 
time  with  a  round  glass  rod.  When  all  has  been  poured  in  stir  a  few  moments  longer, 
pressing  the  rod  against  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  beaker,  and  the  emulsion  will  then  be 
found  to  have  collected  as  a  compact  mass  round  the  end  of  the  stirring-rod,  from  which  it 


BROMO-GELATIN    EMULSION    WORK.  293 

341.  It  will  be  seen  that  in  all  the  preceding  instructions  in  this  lesson, 
the  utmost  diligence  must  he  exercised  in  securing  the  entire  absence 
of  white-light  during  the  preparation  of  the  plates  and  their  manipula- 
tion. Light  may  be  admitted  in  any  quantity,  but  it  must  be  of  a  quality 
of  color  that  is  harmless.  This  may  be  arranged  by  pasting  ruby-colored 

may  be  detached  in  the  following  manner:  Grasp  the  rod  just  above  the  emulsion  with  the 
thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  left  hand,  and  with  the  right  hand  twist  the  rod  round,  at  the 
same  time  pulling  upwards.  The  emulsion  will  thus  be  readily  forced  off  the  rod.  Now 
take  it  (the  emulsion)  between  the  fingers  and  thumbs  of  both  hands,  press  out  of  it  as  much 
alcohol  as  possible,  rinse  it  with  a  little  fresh  alcohol,  and  the  operation  will  now  be  completed. 
In  case  it  is  desired  to  keep  the  consolidated  emulsion  for  any  length  of  time,  it  should  be 
put  at  once  into  a  bottle  in  order  that  it  may  keep  moist,  because  after  it  has  once  been 
allowed  to  become  quite  dry  there  seems  to  be  considerable  difficulty  in  redissolving  it. 
"When  required  for  use,  with  a  clean  pair  of  scissors  cut  up  the  cake  of  emulsion  into  thin 
slices,  letting  these  fall  as  they  are  cut  into  a  beaker  filled  with  cold  water,  in  which  they 
must  be  allowed  to  remain  an  hour  (or  longer  if  convenient),  after  which  pour  off  the  water, 
fill  up  with  fresh,  let  stand  for  a  short  time,  and  then  drain  off  this  also.  Now  place  the 
beaker  in  water  heated  to  about  130°.  Let  it  stand  in  this  for  ten  minutes,  then  add  as  much 
xvater  as  may  be  required  to  make  up  the  quantity  to  three  ounces,  stir  well,  filter,  and  the 
emulsion  will  be  ready  to  coat  the  plates.  It  is  quite  essential  that  plates  prepared  with 
emulsion  made  as  above  directed  should  be  developed  with  ferrous  oxalate,  as  they  are  very 
subject  to  green  fog  when  the  alkaline  developer  is  used.  As  regards  exposure,  I  find  that  at 
two  feet  from  an  ordinary  No.  3  gas-burner  the  time  required  is  about  three  seconds.  Though 
I  consider  these  plates  better  adapted  to  printing  than  to  anything  else,  still  they  will  be  found 
by  no  means  bad  for  any  purpose  where  great  speed  is  not  required,  and  where  the  oxalate 
development  is  admissible. — H.  HOULQRAVE. 

341.  After  a  series  of  experiments  I  came  to  the  conclusion  that,  if  two  non-actinic  media 
were  placed  in  close  contact,  there  would  be  a  less  perfect  light  filtration  (if  I  may  so  term 
it)  than  if  the  planes  or  intercepting  surfaces  of  (say)  the  glass  or  paper  were  separated  by  a 
small  intervening  space.  It  seems  to  act  almost  like  a  "  double  filtration,"  the  actinic  rays 
being  neutralized  far  more  effectually  than  if  the  same  media  were  placed  in  immediate 
contact.  Another  simple  wrinkle  which  no  one  should  miss  is  '-to  grind  one  side  of  your 
ruby  or  orange  glass."  This  softens  or  mellows  the  light  and  prevents  any  direct  flare  from 
the  flame  reaching  the  plate.  When  developing,  I  have  found  this  a  sure  cure  for  light  fog, 
when  caused  by  the  lantern.  If  you  want  to  improve  the  illumination,  after  grinding  the 
surface  of  the  glass  rub  over  the  ground  side  a  little  grease.  A  little  emery  or  pumice  pow- 
der rubbed  on  the  glass  will  soon  obtain  a  ground  or  mat  surface.  My  next  hint  on  lanterns 
will,  I  think,  be  rather  novel  in  character.  It  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than,  instead  of 
using  glass  or  paper  for  the  non-actinic  medium,  to  adopt  a  "  colored  "  liquid  to  pass  the  light 
through.  This  has  the  following  advantages :  You  can  weaken  or  strengthen  it  to  any 
depth  of  tint ;  also,  any  thickness  or  volume  of  colored  medium  can  be  used  to  meet  the  re- 
quirements of  your  sensitive  plates.  Non-actinic  glass  cannot  be  met  with  except  of  a  thin 
kind,  but  by  my  method  you  can  have  density  from  one-eighth  of  an  inch  upwards.  With 
this  power  available,  the  chance  of  fogged  plates  from  unsuitable  "light"  vanishes.  This 
principle  can  be  easily  applied  to  any  form  of  lantern,  as  the  cell  containing  the  colored 


294 


WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 


FIG. 


paper  over  the  glass  of  the  dark-room,  or  by  the  use  of  a  lamp  or  lantern 
protected  properly  by  ruby-colored  glass  or  paper. 

342.  A  few  words  as  to  the  apparatus  needed  for  this  interesting  pro- 
cess for  work  outside,  and  then  it 
must  be  left  to  grow,  and  grow  as  it 
surely  will,  into  public  favor.  In  the 
Lesson  B,  the  camera-box  is  described, 
so  that  here  allusion  need  only  be 
made  to  the  double  holders  and  the 
changing-box,  either  of  which  may 
be  used  to  suit  the  inclinations  of  the 
operator.  Of  the  latter  first.  The 
annexed  diagram  represents  what  is 
known  as  "  the  old-fashioned  dry- 
plate  changing-box/'  It  is  often  used  instead  of  the  double  holders.  The 

liquid  is  simply  adapted  for  the  lantern  in  the  form  of  a  slide,  grooves  being  provided  to  re- 
ceive the  slide  ;  and  this  answers  also  in  place  of  a  hinged  door.  I  find  the  illumination  of 
two  sides  of  the  lantern  sufficient,  and  this  I  place  angle-wise  in  front  of  me  when  at  work. 
A  small  hinged  hood  of  tin  will  be  found  useful  for  protecting  the  eyes  and  keeping  the 
light  on  its  work.  This  is,  of  course,  fastened  to  the  top  of  the  slide,  and  when  in  use  acts 
like  a  sloping  awning  over  the  illuminated  surface  of  glass,  and  ought  to  be  fixed  to  all  lan- 
terns, as  it  effectually  prevents  any  upward  rays  of  light.  To  make  the  slide,  get  two  pieces 
of  clear  glass  of  equal  size,  and  about  one  and  a  half  inches  larger  than  the  lighting  surface  of 
your  proposed  lantern.  Get  some  strips  of  glass  or  wood,  about  three-eighths  of  an  inch  wide, 
and  of  any  thickness  you  may  require  your  fluid  chamber.  I  use  three-eighths  of  an  inch. 
Now  take  the  strips  of  glass  and  cement  them  round  three  sides  of  one  sheet  and  along  the 
fourth  side  ;  also  cement  a  strip,  but  leaving  an  opening  of  half  or  three  quarters  of  an  inch. 
When  all  is  set  firm,  with  a  brush  lay  cement  over  the  strips  so  fastened,  and  then  press  the 
remaining  sheet  of  glass  on  the  top  of  the  same.  This  completes  a  glass  box,  as  it  were,  a 
hole  being  left  at  one  corner  edge  between  the  sheets  of  glass  for  pour- 
ing in  the  liquid.  When  all  is  again  set,  work  a  little  marine  glue  round 
the  edges,  and  then  bed  the  whole  in  a  rebated  wooden  frame,  still  leav- 
ing the  corner  hole.  This  forms  your  glass  screen  complete.  If  the 
lantern  grooves  are  made  wide  enough  to  receive  two  screens,  you  can 
fill  one  with  orange  and  the  other  with  ruby  solution,  and  can  use  them 
either  separately  or  together,  or  neither.  When  non-actinic  light  is  not 
required,  simply  drop  the  slide  into  the  lamp  grooves  in  the  same  manner 
as  when  inserting  the  slide  in  the  back  of  the  camera. — W.  CLEMKNT 
WILLIAMS. 

Fig.  90  is  a  sketch  of  a  lantern  for  the  dark-room.     A,  lamp  ;  B,  ruby 
globe;  C,  white  common  chimney;  D,  tin  chimney;  a,  plaster  of  Paris 
'loint;  6,  annular  space  for  draught;  c,  tin  collar  to  support  globe.     There  seems  to  be  a 


FIG.  90. 


BKOMO-GELATIN    EMULSION    WORK. 


295 


plates  are  put  in  a  grooved  box  necessarily  heavy,  supplied  with  an  auto- 
matic slide  which  opens  as  the  holder  is  drawn  through  a  slot  in  the  box. 
Then  the  box  is  turned  upside  down,  and  the  FIG.  91. 

plate  falling  into  the  holder  is  there  made  fast, 
ready  for  exposure.  Upon  the  holder  being 
withdrawn,  the  slot  is  closed,  and  the  plates  re- 
maining in  the  changing-box  are  protected  from 
light.  Sometimes  such  a  method  is  a  bother- 
some one.  Should  the  plate  be  a  trifle  large,  it 
will  not  come  out  from  the  box,  or  enter  the 
holder,  and  then  has  to  be  passed  over,  no  mat- 
ter how  much  shaking  and  display  of  temper 
is  given  in  the  effort  to  make  it  work  right. 
The  second  figure  represents,  the  changing-box 
as  arranged  when  about  to  receive  or  discharge 
a  plate.  The  brass  registering  plate  at  the  side 
is  numbered  so  that  account  can  always  be  made 
of  the  plate  which  has  been  exposed. 

343.  The  double  dark-slide,  patented  by  the  American  Optical  Com- 
pany, seems  very  superior  to  the  changing-box,  being  lighter,  surer,  and 
enabling  one  to  duplicate  negatives  quickly  in  case  the  circumstances  are 
favorable,  without  having  to  run  to  the  changing-box,  drop  one  plate  and 
receive  another,  thus  wasting  the  time  when  the  light  is  in  its  most  charm- 
ing condition.  The  double  holder  is  described  in  the  Photographic  Times 
as  follows : 

"As  in  the  original  slide,  the  plates  are  inserted  by  means  of  a  groove 
—in  this  instance  in  the  bottom.  Instead,  however,  of  both  plates-  being 
placed  back  to  back  with  a  piece  of  springy  paper  between  them,  and 
then  inserted  in  the  wide  central  aperture  fitted  to  receive  them,  there  is 
a  separate  groove  for  each  plate  with  an  extra  groove  between  them: 

general  want  of  a  proper  lamp  to  develop  dry  plates  by,  and  the  above  plan  is  simple,  safe,  and 
any  tinsmith  can  make  it.  All  that  is  required  is  the  ruby  globe ;  those  used  by  railroad 
companies,  if  deep  color,  are  just  the  thing.  If  we  could  be  supplied  with  such  a  lamp,  or  a  better 
one,  by  the  dealers,  I  think  it  would  greatly  uid  dry-plate  workers. — GEORGE  EASTMAN. 

TABLE  FOR  THE  SIMPLIFICATION  OF  EMULSION  CALCULATIONS. — With  a  view  of  sim- 
plifying the  calculations  involved  in  emulsion  making,  Mr.  William  Ackland  has  worked 
out  a  useful  table  which  will  enable  even  those  most  ignorant  of  chemical  philosophy 
to  calculate  with  ease  and  rapidity  the  proper  quantities  of  silver  or  haloid  salts  in  any 
formula.  Even  those  who  are  able  to  perform  the  calculations  in  the  recognized  style,  will 


296 


WILSON'S   PHOTOGKAPHICS. 


When  the  end  is  opened  ready  for  the  reception  of  the  plates  it  looks  for 
all  the  world  like  a  plate-box  containing  accommodation  for  only  three 
plates.  The  two  outer  grooves  disclosed  to  view  are,  of  course,  for  the 

find  their  labors  materially  lightened  by  means  of  this  table,  which  should  be  kept  in  a 
convenient  place  for  reference  in  every  laboratory. 


ow|U 

O  O  ft 

2  *""  'a 

^1 

1-2-L 

fe-Sfl 

a 

6S2* 

3*0  S 

l-Ka« 

^^1 

d  *-<  ir«"5 

=   3  '2    c. 

1 
! 

<^° 
«*r  i!  C  rt 

||p 

Weight  of  s 
haloid  requi 
convert  one 
AgNO 

jf'P 

Weight  of  j, 
haloid  requi 
produce  one  j 
silver  hal 

If 

Ammonium  Bromide,  .     .     . 

98 

1.734 

.576 

1.918 

.521 

1 

Potassium                       .     .     . 

119.1 

1.427 

.700 

1.578 

.633 

Sodium                            .     .     . 

103 

1.650 

.606 

1.825 

.548 

Cadmium                        .  com. 

344* 

.988 

1.012 

1.093 

.915 

1.106 

"                                .   anh. 

272* 

1.25 

.800 

1.382 

.723 

Zinc                                 .     .     . 

225.2* 

1.509 

.663 

1.670 

.600 

J 

Ammonium  Chloride,  .     .     . 

53.5 

3.177 

.315 

2.682 

.373 

Sodium                 "          ... 

58.5 

2.906 

.344 

2.453 

.408 

-    .844 

Ammonium  Iodide,      .  .  .     . 

145 

1.172 

.853 

1.620 

.617 

Potassium          "           ... 

166.1 

1.023 

.977 

1.415 

.707 

Sodium               "           ... 

150 

1.133 

.882 

1.566 

.638 

1.382 

Cadmium           "           ... 

366* 

.929 

1.076 

1.284 

.778 

*  These  salts  combine  with  two  equivalents  of  silver  nitrate,  so  that  practically  the  real  equivalent  is  one-half  that  given. 

The  principal  bromides,  chlorides,  and  iodides  which  are  likely  to  be  used  in  emulsions 
of  either  gelatin  or  collodion  have  been  included  in  this  table.  This  table  presents  to 
the  reader,  without  any  mystification  which  may  be  involved  in  equivalents,  the  actual 
weights  of  haloid  or  silver,  as  the  case  may  be,  required  to  convert  or  combine  with  one  grain 
of  the  other.  In  order  to  test  the  utility  of  this  table,  let  us  suppose  that  it  is  desired  to  make, 
say,  ten  ounces  of  emulsion  by  a  new  formula,  which,  for  the  sake  of  showing  the  working 
of  the  table,  we  will  write  down  as  follows : 

Bromide  of  Potassium,  .........     150  grains. 

Iodide  of  Potassium, 10       " 

Chloride  of  Ammonium,         .         .         .         .         .  .         .       10       " 

Gelatin, 200       " 

Now  we  want  to  know  how  much  silver  nitrate  should  be  employed  in  sensitizing  this 
mixture.  For  this  purpose  we  use  the  first  column,  in  which  we  find  against  each  haloid  the 
exact  quantity  of  silver  nitrate  required  to  fully  decompose  one  grain.  Taking,  then,  the 
figures  we  find  in  column  No.  1  against  the  three  salts  in  the  above  formula,  and  multiply- 
ing them  by  the  number  of  grains  of  each  used,  we  have  the  following  sum : 

Potassium  Bromide,      ....     150x1.427  =  214       ^      Weight  of 
Potassium  Iodide,        .        .         .  10  X  1.023  =    10.23  L  silver  nitrate 

Chloride  of  Ammonium,       .         .         .       10x3.177=    31.77  J      required. 

or  the  total  quantity  of  nitrate  of  silver  required  for  full  conversion,  256.00  grains. 

W.    P.    BOLTON. 


BKOMO-GELATIN    EMULSION    WORK. 


297 


FIG.  92. 


FIG.  93. 


reception  of  the  plates,  which  are  inserted  face  out.  In  the  central  groove 
is  inserted  a  slab  of  blackened  wood,  on  each  side  of  which  is  a  thin  brass 
spring,  which,  pressing  against  the  backs  of  the  plates,  keeps 
them  firm  against  the  face  of  their  respective  grooves,  the  wooden 
partition  itself  effectually  preventing  the  transmission  of  light 
from  one  side  to  the  other.  This  partition  is  finished  off  with  a 
thick  solid  piece  of  wood  nearly  the  width 
and  thickness  of  the  whole  slide,  the  fit- 
ting of  it  being  such  as  to  cause  it  to  block 
up  in  a  perfectly  light-tight  manner  the 
aperture  through  which  the  plates  were 
admitted.  In  short,  by  the  insertion  of 
this  central  partition,  the  plates  are  rigidly 
held  in  their  places  and  rendered  abso- 
lutely secure  from  the  admission  of  even  the  faintest  trace  of  light. 
It  contains  five  grooves,  the  two  outer  ones  being  for  the  sliding 
shutters,  which  may  be  formed  of  zinc,  ebonite,  or,  as  in  the  American 
one,  a  hard-pressed  varnished  sheet  of  card,  or,  rather,  a  very  highly-cal- 
endered Manila  board.  These  outer  grooves 
are  very  thin,  being  only  sufficient  to  permit 
the  shutter  to  slide  easily.  The  three  others 
are  respectively  for  the  two  plates  and  the 
central  partition  already  described.  When 
exposing,  the  shutter  is  pulled  entirely  out 
and  is  quite  detached  from  the  slide,  there 
being  a  "  cut-off"  automatically  thrown  into 
action  by  which  the  aperture  through  which  the  shutter  was  withdrawn 
is  instantaneously  closed  against  the  light.  The  above  engravings  will 
render  still  plainer,  if  possible,  the  verbal  description  just  given.  The 
grooves  for  both  the  sensitive  plates  and  the  central  partition  are  shown 
at  (BOB)  in  the  end  view  (A),  Fig.  92,  of  the  holder.  In  the  central  groove 
(c)  is  inserted  the  partition  (D),  Fig.  93,  with  its  side  springs.  This  parti- 
tion is  so  arranged  that  not  a  particle  of  light  reaches  the  plate  after  it  has 
been  pushed  into  position.  In  Fig.  94  is  shown  the  holder  (F)  with  shutters 
(i  i)  partly  drawn,  and  showing  the  end  (G)  in  which  the  plates  and  divis- 
ional partition  are  inserted.  The  above  engravings  represent  the  dark 
slide  to  be  much  thicker  than  it  is  in  reality." 


FIG.  94. 


LESSON  V. 

VOXEL'S    COLLODION    EMULSION. 

344.  WITH  all  its  advantages,  the  bromo-gelatin  process  is  not  entirely 
all  that  is  wanted  to  take  the  place  of  the  "  wet"  or  bath  method  of  work- 
ing, and  the  inventive  portion  of  the  craft  is  still  on  the  search  for  some- 
thing better.  This,  Dr.  H.  W.  Yogel,  the  well-known  German  scientist, 
claims  to  have  found,  and  provides  an  emulsion  which  photographers  can 
use  for  coating  their  plates,  and  expose  it  "wet"  or  "dry,"  but  always 
discarding  the  use  of  the  bath.  His  process  of  manufacturing  the  emul- 
sion is  patented,  and  consists  in  forming  a  homogeneous  mixture  con- 

344.  PRELIMINARY  PREPARATION  OF  THE  PLATES. — The  glass  plates  require  a  coating  in 
order  to  make  the  emulsion  adhere  quite  fast,  and  for  this  purpose  a  solution  of  caoutchouc 
or  chrome  gelatin  is  used.  A.  Coating  with  Caoutchouc. — Pour  twenty-five  grammes  chlo- 
roform over  one  gramme  soft,  brown  caoutchouc;  let  the  whole  stand  quiet  two  or  three 
days,  stirring  it  occasionally,  and  dilute  the  solution  with  eight  times  its  volume  of  light 
benzine,  and  filter  through  cotton.  The  solution  keeps  for  months.  With  it  the  cleaned 
and  dusted  plates  are  coated  the  same  as  with  collodion  ;  the  coating  dries  in  five  minutes. 
The  drainings  must  not  be  poured  back  into  the  original  bottle,  but  caught  in  a  separate 
bottle,  to  be  diluted  afterwards  with  one-eighth  benzine  and  filtered,  before  ready  again  for 
use.  B.  Coating  with  Chrome  Gelatin. — Dissolve  one  gramme  of  gelatin  in  300  grammes 
of  warm  water,  filter,  and  after  washing  add  six  cubic  centimeters  of  a  filtered  solution  of 
chrome  alum,  1 :  50.  The  solution  keeps  from  four  to  six  days.  The  plates  are  acidulated, 
washed  very  thoroughly  under  rubbing,  and  then  placed  in  a  cup  with  distilled  filtered  wa- 
ter. They  are  then  taken  out  one  by  one,  a  portion  of  the  solution  of  gelatin  is  poured  on 
and  allowed  to  flow  over  the  whole  surface,  when  the  excess  is  drained  off.  (These  drainings 
are  not  used  again.)  The  first  affusion  drives  off  the  water,  and  after  the  same  has  drained 
off  another  coating  is  poured  on,  and  the  plates  are  placed  in  a  vertical  position  for  draining 
and  drying.  In  not  too  cold  temperature,  they  will  be  dry  inside  of  an  hour.  In  winter, 
the  gelatinizing  is -done  in  a  warm  place,  as  cold  plates  do  not  take  the  gelatin  easily. 

THE  POURING  ON  OF  THE  EMULSION. — Place  the  bottle  containing  the  emulsion  in  warm 
water  of  about  40°  R.,  until  the  emulsion,  which  sometimes  congeals  in  the  cold,  becomes 
thoroughly  liquid,  and  then  pour  it  on  like  collodion.  The  substance  flows  and  evaporates 
somewhat  slower  than  collodion,  so  that  no  fears  of  drying  need  be  entertained  in  pouring 
on.  The  plate  may  be  balanced  in  the  hand,  so  as  to  help  to  produce  an  equal  coating. 

While  the  excess  is  drained  off,  rock  the  plate,  but  slower  than  with  collodion.  When 
the  last  drop  gathered  on  the  corner  begins  to  congeal,  place  the  plate  in  a  vertical  position 
(  298) 


VOGEL'S    COLLODION    EMULSION.  299 

taining  bromide  of  silver,  or  its  equivalent,  with  pyroxyline,  which 
consists  in  first  producing  the  gelatin  emulsion  in  the  usual  way  and 
drying  the  same,  then  dissolving  it  in  an  organic  acid  and  mixing  the 
solution  with  pyroxylin  also  dissolved  in  an  organic  acid.  Thus  it  will 
be  seen  we  have  a  collodion  emulsion,  so  to  speak,  which  must  be  diffi- 
cult to  prepare.  But,  since  it  is  in  the  market  and  destined  to  become  a 

to  dry.  The  drainings  are  caught  in  separate  bottles.  The  preparation  takes  place  in  the 
dark-room,  with  red  light.  For  draining-bottles,  collodion  bottles  covered  with  brown  pa- 
per are  recommended.  The  beginner  may  meet,  perhaps,  some  difficulties  at  first,  but  after 
one  or  two  experiments  he  will  become  quite  an  expert.  In  winter,  a  well-warmed  room  is 
indispensable. 

THE  EXPOSURE. — For  exposure,  light-proof  cameras  and  boxes  are  required,  also  protec- 
tion of  the  objective  from  lateral  side-light.  Time  of  exposure  about  one-third  of  the  time 
necessary  for  wet  iodine-collodion  plates.  Exposed  wet,  the  emulsion  plates  are  a  trifle  less 
sensitive  than  when  exposed  dry. 

DEVELOPING. — For  this  stage  of  the  manipulation,  the  simple  alkaline  pyrogallic  developer 
is  best  adapted,  but  it  is  necessary  to  modify  the  same  according  to  the  temperature  and 
character  of  the  plate.  For  a  carte-de-visite  plate,  5x8  inches,  take 

Solution  of  Bromide  of  Potassium,  1 : 10,       .         .         .         .         .     1£  to  2  c.  c. 
Solution  of  Pyrogallic  Acid  in  Alcohol,  1 : 10,        .         .         .         .  2     " 

Water, 100     " 

Add  five  or  six  drops  of  ammonia,  pour  the  mixture  in  a  cup,  and  place  the  plate  in  it,  with 
subdued  light.  If  the  plate  has  been  exposed  wet,  it  must  be  previously  placed  in  a  cup  of 
water  from  three  to  five  minutes,  and  rinsed  somewhat,  then  it  is  placed  in  the  above-men- 
tioned developer,  which  may  contain  one  or  two  drops  more  of  ammonia  than  stated  above. 
With  a  dry  plate,  an  equal  flowing  over  of  the  developer  is  of  importance,  in  order  to  avoid 
streaks.  If  the  plates  incline  to  form  fog,  which  occurs  oftener  in  high  than  in  low  tem- 
perature, the  addition  of  bromide  of  potassium  is  increased ;  the  same  in  case  of  over- 
exposure.  When  stronger  intensity  is  desired,  take  double  the  quantitity  of  pyrogallic  acid, 
as  stated  above,  and  nine  or  ten  drops  of  ammonia.  The  picture  develops  gradually,  and  its 
intensity  increases  more  and  more.  An  addition  of  one  drop  of  ammonia  more  helps  the 
development.  The  ferrous-oxalate  developer  of  Dr.  Eder  can  be  used  when  eight  drops 
of  bromide  of  potassium  (1 :  10)  to  one  hundred  cubic  centimeters  developer  are  added,  but 
it  is  liable  to  work  hard.  Also  the  prussiate  of  potash  developer 

Yellow  Prussiate  of  Potash  Solution,  1:4, 50  c.  c. 

Water, 50     " 

Pyrogallic  Alcohol,  1  : 10, 5     " 

Ammonia, 12  drops, 

can  be  used,  but  in  most  cases  the  pure  pyrogallic  acid  developer  is  preferable. 

THE  FIXING  takes  place  just  as  rapidly  as  the  fixing  of  a  collodion  plate.  The  plate  is 
put  in  a  solution  of  hyposulphite  of  soda,  1:5.  In  a  few  minutes  it  is  fixed.  Minute  yellow 
dots,  which  may,  perhaps,  remain  in  it,  are  nothing  but  bromide  of  silver  left,  which  is 
easily  dissolved  in  continued  fixing.  After  fixing,  the  film  is  washed  (not  longer  than  H 


300  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

popular  candidate  for  favor,  full  directions  are  given  below  for  its  use. 
The  advantages  claimed  by  the  inventor  are  its  keeping  qualities,  and 
the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  worked.  The  plates  are  coated  just  as 
collodion  plates  are,  and  may  be  intensified,  fixed,  washed,  and  dried 
with  no  more  labor.  Hence,  any  photographer  may  prepare  his  own 
plates  economically,  if  the  directions  in  the  notes  are  faithfully  adhered 
to.  They  are  given  as  received  from  Dr.  Yogel. 

collodion  plate).  It  adheres  to  the  plate  better  than  the  gelatin  emulsion.  Treatment  with 
alum  is  unnecessary. 

INTENSIFYING  is  necessary  only  in  exceptional  cases.     The  following  mixture  is  used  for  it: 

Solution  of  Iodide  of  Potassium,  1 : 10,  .         .         .         .         .  5  c.  c. 

Solution  of  Bichloride  of  Mercury,  1 :  50,  .  .  5     " 

Water, 10     " 

This  solution  is  poured  upon  the  fixed  and  carefully  washed  plate  until  the  surface  of  the 
same  shows  a  distinct  greenish-gray  color.  Afterwards  rinse  carefully  with  water.  Other 
intensifiers,  even  the  silver  intensifier,  may  be  used  with  these  plates,  but  the  iodide  of 
mercury  intensifier  is  the  best;  care  has  to  be  taken  not  to  let  it  act  too  long.  The  action 
continues  even  during  the  washing.  Less  rapid,  but  surer,  works  Edwards'  intensifier,  as 
follows : 

a  Chloride  of  Mercury,  1 :  50. 

b  Iodide  of  Potassium,  1  :10. 

c  Fixing  Soda,  1  :  8. 

And  twenty  cubic  centimeters  a  are  mixed  with  six  and  a  half  cubic  centimeters  b,  and  six 
and  a  half  cubic  centimeters  c.  This  intensifier  can  be  used  also  upon  the  imperfectly 
washed  fixed  plate  without  danger. 

DRYING  AND  VARNISHING. — The  plates  dry  spontaneously  in  a  few  minutes;  the  varnish- 
ing is  the  same  as  with  a  collodion  plate.  A  previous  coating  with  gum  and  similar 
substances  is  only  to  be  used  when  the  glass  plates  have  not  been  coated  with  caoutchouc,  but 
are  gelatinized. 

THE  RE-EMPLOYMENT  OF  THE  DRAININGS. — The  emulsion  drained  from  the  plate  can  be 
used  again  after  having  been  filtered.  Dilute  with  one-tenth  of  its  volume  of  a  mixture  of 
three-fourths  alcohol  with  one-fourth  acetic  acid,  and  filter  warm,  either  through  shirting — 
which  has  previously  been  boiled  several  times  in  water,  in  order  to  get  rid  of  the  starch, 
and  dried  again — or  through  a  funnel,  in  the  neck  of  which  clean  cotton  is  placed.  The 
latter  is  rammed  tight  with  a  glass  rod,  which  is  left  sticking  in  the  funnel.  Then  moisten 
with  the  above-mentioned  alcohol  and  acetic  acid  mixture,  and  pour  on  the  drainings.  By 
pressure  with  the  glass  rod,  the  filtering  can  be  regulated. 

CAUTIONARY  RULES. — Water  precipitates  the  emulsion,  therefore  care  must  be  taken  to 
avoid  letting  drops  of  water  get  on  the  plate  which  is  to  be  prepared.  The  vessels  for  meas- 
uring and  keeping  the  emulsion  must  be  perfectly  dry.  Upon  old  caoutchouc  coatings  the 
emulsion  does  not  adhere  as  tightly  as  upon  fresh  ones.  The  gelatin  coating,  however,  can 
be  used  after  months,  if  it  is  protected  against  dust.  The  rough  margins  of  the  plate  have 
to  be.  cleaned  thoroughly. 


LESSON    W. 

ENLARGEMENTS    ANL>    LANTERN    SLIDES. 

345.  SOLAR-CAMERA  printing  is  used  only  as  a*  means  of  making  enlarged 
pictures  arid  is  not  adapted  for  small  work,  owing  to  the  coarseness  of 
the  results  and  the  slowness  of  their  production.  The  negative  to  he 
used  for  this  purpose  should  not  he  so  dense  as  one  intended  for  contact 
printing,  and  in  manipulating  it  all  harsh,  hard  shadows  should  be 
remedied.  A  thin,  even-flowing  collodion  should  he  used,  plenty  of  ex- 
posure given,  and  rather  slow,  weak  development  practised.  The  negative 
should  not  he  varnished.  There  are  two  forms  of  solar  camera  used — 
one  known  as  the  "  reflecting"  and  the  other  as  the  "direct  printing." 
They  are  composed  of  an  objective,  a  condenser,  and  a  dark-chamber,  in 

345.  Negatives  well  adapted  to  solar  enlargements  should  be  full  of  detail  in  the  shadows, 
but  thin  ;  and  should,  as  seen  by  transmitted  light,  be  full  of  detail  in  the  high-lights,  and 
not  opaque,  but  semi-transparent.  Time  them  the  same  as  for  contact  negatives.  Most 
photographers  fail  in  producing  a  good  solar  negative  by  using  their  developer  too  strong, 
causing  a  coarse  deposit  on  the  high-lights.  The  proper  strength  of  developer  is  from  twenty 
to  thirty  grains  to  the  ounce,  with  the  addition  of  a  little  alcohol.  Always  fix  the  negatives 
for  solar  purposes  in  a  weak  solution  of  cyanide  of  potassium.  It  is  preferable  to  hyposul- 
phite of  soda.  Many  do  not  observe  proper  care  in  sizing  the  figure  on  the  plate,  giving 
much  trouble  to  the  printer.  Always  make  a  standing  figure  small,  so  as  to  allow  plenty  of 
background  ;  more  than  for  a  card  or  cabinet.  For  bust  or  vignette  heads,  make  the  heads 
never  less  than  one  and  a  quarter  inches  in  length.  A  smaller  size  can  be  printed,  but  not 
always  with  such  good  results.  As  very  few  varnish  negatives  without  showing  lines  and 
spots,  it  is  best  to  leave  solar  negatives  unvarnished. — ~W.  L.  SHOEMAKER. 

A  receipt  for  retouching  solar  negatives,  I  give  you  as  follows :  Make  a  varnish  of 

Alcohol, 16  ounces. 

Gum  Sandarac, 3      " 

Camphor, i  ounce. 

Oil  of  Cinnamon, a  few  drops. 

Varnish  the  negative  on  both  sides.  Then  grind  by  drawing  the  ball  of  the  finger  rapidly 
over  the  surface  of  the  negative,  from  one  end  to  the  other,  on  the  negative  side,  grinding 
the  entire  surface.  Then  grind  the  back  crosswise  in  the  same  manner,  being  careful  to 
move  the  finger  in  straight  lines,  as  grinding  in  circles  would  spoil  it.  Then  retouch  the 
negative  in  the  usual  manner,  and  you  have  one  that  will  print  better  than  any  contact 

(  301  ) 


302  WILSON  S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

which  a  vertical  frame,  or  screen,  stands  for  the  reception  of  the  sensi- 
tized sheet  upon  which  the  image  is  to  he  printed.  A  holder  for  the 
negative,  reversed  vertically,  is  also  provided  in  front  of  the  sheet.  The 
screen  upon  which  the  paper  is  fastened  must  be  perpendicular  to  the 
axis  of  the  lens  and  facing  the  middle  or  centre  of  the  lens.  Careful,  fine 
retouching  of  the  negative  is  not  hurtful. 

346.  The  next  matter  is  to  prepare  the  surface  upon  which  the  print  is 
to  he  made.  Albumenized  and  plain  paper  are  used  the  most  largely,  but 
oftentimes  canvas  and  wood  are  also  employed.  Whatever  the  sub- 
stance may  be,  it  must  be  sensitized  and  made  ready  by  a  method  similar 
to  that  already  given  in  the  Lessons  M  and  ]ST.  Canvas  is  to  be  used 
when  the  picture  is  to  be  painted  in  oil,  and  wood  for  engraving.  The 
same  guarded  care  as  to  dirt  and  light  in  the  wrong  place  must  be 
practised,  and  constant  vigilance  as  to  the  time  of  exposure  and  after 
manipulations. 

print  of  the  same  size.  If  the  varnish  should  grind  too  coarse  use  less  camphor,  or  more 
camphor  if  too  fine. — H.  D.  WEBSTER. 

To  soften  hard  negatives  for  enlargement,  first  remove  the  iodide  from  the  negative  with 
hyposulphite  of  soda,  wash,  and  then  using  a  vessel  with  a  large  opening,  place  in  it  a  small 
quantity  of  a  solution  of  cyanide  of  potassium  at  four  per  cent.,  of  ordinary  water,  which 
pour  upon  the  negative  at  several  intervals  until  it  is  brought  to  the  desired  tone.  Now 
wash,  dry,  and  varnish  it.  The  cyanide  is  poured  again  into  the  stock-bottle,  to  be  used 
until  exhausted.  For  negatives  that  are  already  weak,  the  strength  of  the  solution  of 
cyanide  may  be  reduced  to  from  three  to  two  per  cent.  By  this  process,  whilst  preserving 
all  the  delicacy  of  the  modelling,  one  succeeds  in  obtaining  transparencies,  by  which  the 
negative  gains  considerably  in  harmony  and  softness.  You  may  thus  prepare  for  enlarge- 
ment negatives  of  the  desired  transparency,  and,  if  needs  be,  upon  a  plate  bearing  two 
negatives,  choose  the  sharper  one,  which  you  can  treat  especially  for  enlargement,  whilst 
you  may  leave  the  other  for  printing  ordinary  positives. — M.  DARRICAU. 

346.  The  brightest  and  most  vigorous  prints  are  obtained  on  the  ordinary  albumenized 
paper ;  and  consequently,  when  the  season  is  favorable  and  the  sky  unclouded,  preference 
will  be  given  to  this  paper  for  solar  printing,  when  the  prints  are  not  to  be  retouched  or 
colored.  But,  during  the  winter  season,  and  the  early  spring  and  late  autumn  months, 
when  the  sun's  power  has  diminished  in  vigor,  and  is  frequently  obscured  by  clouds,  it  is  not 
advisable  to  attempt  printing  on  albumen  paper,  because  the  exposure  will  be  too  long  to  be 
convenient,  and  may  frequently  have  to  be  interrupted,  during  which  time  the  paper  may 
have  changed  its  dimensions,  and  no  longer  lies  flat.  In  such  a  case  as  this  another  mode 
of  printing  has  to  be  pursued.  The  paper  is  sensitized  the  usual  way,  but  on  a  strong  silver 
»*olution  for  two  or  three  minutes,  that  is,  until  it  lies  perfectly  even  on  the  solution,  and  the 
corners  have  settled  down.  The  object  in  this  is  to  get  the  paper  sufficiently  saturated  with 
moisture;  and  the  reason  for  using  a  strong  silver  solution  is  to  coagulate  the  albumen, 
and  not  dissolve  it  off  from  the  paper,  which  a  weak  solution  would  do. — PROF.  J.  TOWLER. 


ENLARGEMENTS    AND    LANTERN    SLIDES.  303 

347.  There  are   two   methods  of  making  solar  prints.     The   first   is 
known  as  the  "  ordinary"  process,  which  consists  in  salting  and  sensitiz- 
ing the  sheet,  putting  it  in  the  camera,  and  then  washing,  toning,  fixing, 
and  treating  it  generally  as  ordinary  prints  are  treated,  full  details  con- 
cerning which  are  given  in  Lessons  M  and  N.     Albumen  paper  or  plain 
paper  may  be  used  in  this  way. 

348.  In  some  localities  the  photographer  is  blessed  with  very  little  sun- 

347.  A  salting  solution  for  cartoon  paper  may  be  made  as  follows: 

Boiled  Milk,    . .         .1  pint. 

Glacial  Acetic  Acid, 10  drops. 

Albumen  from  two  large  eggs. 

Bromide  of  Potassium, 80  grains. 

Iodide  of  Potassium, 160      " 

Mix  thoroughly,  and  filter.     The  albumen  should  be  well  cut  before  adding  it  to  the  milk. 
Float  or  swab  the  paper  with  the  salting  for  two  minutes.     The  sensitizing  solution  is,  viz.: 
Water,     ............       1  ounce. 

Nitrate  of  Silver, 40  grains. 

Swab  this  on  evenly  for  two  minutes.     Develop  with 

Water,     ............       8  ounces. 

Pyrogallic  Acid,      ..........    2  heaping  teaspoonfuls. 

Glacial  Acetic  Acid, 1  ounce. 

Bromide  of  Potassium,  .  4  grains. 

Fix  with 

Water,     ............     10  ounces. 

Hyposulphite  of  Soda 4       " 

GEORGE  W.  WALLACE. 

To  prepare  canvas  for  solar  printing,  get  a  piece  of  prepared  canvas,  such  as  painters  gener- 
ally use  ;  rub  the  little  knots  of  paint  down  with  fine  emery  and  alcohol ;  then  rub  with 
alcohol  until  the  paint  is  almost  ofi°.  The  rubbing  must  be  done  in  circles,  commencing  in 
the  centre  of  the  canvas.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  rub  too  much,  thereby  showing  the  bare 
canvas.  After  rubbing,  wash  the  canvas  well  with  water.  Mix  kaolin  with  alcohol,  to  a 
paste;  lay  a  good,  even  coating  of  the  mixture  on  the  canvas,  and  let  it  dry  hard,  so  that 
when  the  stretcher  is  shaken  the  kaolin  falls  off  in  scales;  now  wash  well  with  water,  and 
salt  with  any  of  the  usual  salting  solutions.  After  the  picture  is  printed,  toned,  and  fixed, 
give  the  canvas  a  coat  of  megilp.  It  is  now  ready  for  the  painter.  Some  use  gelatin  for  the 
last  coating,  but  megilp  takes  the  paint  much  better,  and  is  in  no  danger  of  peeling  off. — 
LEON  VIDAL. 

348.  Printing  by  development  in  the  solar  camera  is  practised  in  all  cases  by  some  solai 
printers,  but  I  do  not  think  as  good  results  are  obtained  in  that  way  us  by  the  other  process. 
There  are  times,  however,  when  the  negative  is  so  very  intense  that  one  can  hardly  spare  a 
whole  day,  especially  in  winter,  to  make  a  print  from  it.     In  such  cases  we  have  to  do  the 
next  best  thing,  and  resort  to  printing  by  development.     The  operation  is  the  same  in  prin- 
ciple to  that  of  producing  collodion  pictures  by  the  means  of  a  developer,  or,  more  properly, 
a  reducer,  and  the  same  ingredients,  pretty  much,  are  to  be  used  in  its  practice.     I  prefer  to 


304  WILSON'S    PHOTDGrKAPHICS. 

shine  of  the  quality  needed  for  solar  printing.  He  must  then  have  resort 
to  the  "  development"  process,. which  consists  in  printing  the  image  but 
partially,  and  then  developing  it  to  the  full  strength  by  after  manipula- 

salt  my  own  paper,  and  use  only  a  chloride,  without  the  addition  of  either  a  bromide,  iodide, 
or  nitrate  of  uranium,  as  some. use.  For  a  salting  solution  use 

Chloride  of  Sodium, 100  grains. 

Hydrochloric  Acid, 6  drops. 

Distilled  Water, 12  ounces. 

Immerse  two  to  three  minutes  and  dry.     Sensitize  with 

Nitrate  of  Silver,      ..........       1  ounce. 

Citric  Acid, 8  grains. 

Distilled  Water, 8  ounces. 

Float  about  three  minutes  and  hang  up  to  dry.  Blot  off  all  the  superfluous  fluid  from  the 
corners  and  lower  edge.  The  paper  may  be  used  before  it  is  decidedly  dry,  if  you  wish,  and 
should  be  exposed  until  a  faint  image  appears.  In  direct  sunlight  I  expose  from  three  to 
four  seconds ;  on  a  cloudy  day,  or  in  diffused  light,  about  a  minute  must  be  given. 

For  the  development  provide  a  large  porcelain  dish,  larger  than  your  sheet  of  paper,  and 
a  sheet  of  clean  glass,  somewhat  smaller  than  the  print.  Withdraw  the  print  from  the  cam- 
era, being  careful  to  keep  it  from  the  light,  and  lay  it  upon  the  glass  face  up.  Fold  down 
the  paper  at  each  side,  beneath  the  glass,  and  place  paper  and  glass  together  on  the  left  side 
of  your  dish.  Now  take  of  the  following  developer — 

Water, 6  ounces. 

Pyrogallic  Acid, -  .         .         .         .12  grains. 

Citric  Acid, 6      " 

enough  to  cover  the  paper.  Incline  the  dish  downwards,  to  the  right,  and  pour  in  the  solu- 
tion ;  then,  raising  the  right  side,  cause  the  fluid  to  flow  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  print, 
taking  care  to  have  it  flow  evenly.  Lest  markings  and  lines  occur,  let  no  stoppage  take  place. 
The  development  begins  at  once  and  proceeds  as  rapidly  as  in  the  case  of  a  negative,  and  too 
much  care  cannot  be  given  it.  When  the  print  appears  sufficiently  vigorous,  stop  the  de- 
velopment, pour  off  the  solution,  and  wash  thoroughly.  Fix  until  the  whites  are  perfectly 
clear,  which  will  sometimes  take  ten  minutes  and  sometimes  thirty.  After  fixing,  the  prints 
must  be  very  thoroughly  washed.  They  may  be  toned  in  the  ordinary  toning-bath.  Tone 
in  rather  a  weak  solution,  otherwise  the  strength  of  the  prints  will  be  reduced.  Like  in 
everything  else,  practice  is  needed  to  make  one  perfect. — YOUNG  CHLORIDE. 
This  formula  to  prepare  paper  is  among  the  oldest  published : 

Skimmed  Milk,        ..........         ^  gallon. 

Acetic  Acid,  No.  8,          .........         3  ounces. 

Stir,  and  put  it  in  a  porcelain  dish  ;  bring  to  a  boil,  stirring  all  the  time  ;  strain  out  the  curd 
through  muslin  (make  Dutch  cheese  of  this) ;  take  the  serum,  when  cold,  filter  until  clear. 
Now  add 

Iodide  of  Potassium, .16  grains. 

Bromide  of  Potassium, 4       " 

to  each  ounce  of  the  clear  serum.  Float  your  plain  paper  on  this  until  it  lays  smooth  ;  see 
that  no  bubbles  or  spots  rest  on  the  paper  ;  dry  with  moderate  heat ;  prepare  the  paper  in  a 


ENLARGEMENTS    AND    LANTERN    SLIDES. 


305 


ti./ns.  Some  parties  prefer  the  results  obtained  in  this  way.  As  a  rule, 
they  are  not  so  soft  and  delicate,  and  they  should  be  made  on  stronger 
paper,  because  of  the  handling  they  must  undergo,  and  because  they  must 
be  passed  through  various  solutions  and  washings.  This  method  has  a 
great  advantage  when  the  sunshine  is  scarce,  on  account  of  the  very  short  ex- 
posure required  by  it.  AVlien  the  prints  are  to  be  worked  up  by  the  brush 
or  pencil,  they  answer  quite  as  well  as  those  made  by  the  other  method. 

room  free  from  dust  or  actinic  light,  and  if  kept  in  a  cool,  dry  atmosphere,  it  will  keep  in 
good  working  order  a  long  time.  To  use,  float  two  minutes  on  a  solution  of 

Silver, 640  grains. 

Water, 16  ounces. 

.   Acetic  Acid, 2      " 

Draw  the  sheet  off  the  silver  solution  over  a  glass  rod.  Having  previously  focussed  your 
pictui-e,  place  your  paper,  while  damp,  in  position,  and  let  on  the  light;  print  according  to 
the  density  of  the  negative.  A  very  hard  negative  requires  printing  until  the  detail  is  well 
out,  and  developed  with  a  very  weak  developer;  on  the  contrary,  a  very  thin  negative  need 
not  show  any  detail,  and  must  have  a  stronger  developer,  which  is  prepared  as  follows: 

Pyrogallic  Acid, 90  grains. 

Water 32  ounces. 

Acetic  Acid, 2*     " 

Citric  Acid  (saturated  solution), 10  drops. 

This  is  for  medium,  or  good  for  printing  contact  negatives.  This  class  of  negatives  is  what 
is  required  for  making  enlargements  by  development.  For  hard  negatives,  use  less  pyro; 
for  weak,  such  as  regular  solar  negatives,  use  more' pyro.  The  old  rule  was  to  swab  on  both 
the  iodizers  and  the  silver ;  but  in  that  way  you  are  pretty  sure  to  get  streaks  and  stains  in 
about  half  or  more  of  the  prints  you  try.  In  developing,  lay  the  paper,  face  up,  on  a  clean 
board,  on  which  a  clean  piece  of  white  bibulous  paper  is  laid.  Have  the  developer  in  a 
wide-mouth  bottle.  Commence  at  one  end,  and  apply  enough  with  one  sweep  of  the  hand 
to  completely  cover  the  print;  now  watch  it  grow.  If  stains  or  fog  occur,  either  you  have 
overtimed,  or  allowed  actinic  light  to  get  at  the  print,  especially  so  if  the  picture  pops  out 
quick  and  then  blackens  all  over.  If  it  comes  up  slowly  and  stains  from  this  cause,  add  more 
citric  acid.  As  soon  as  developed,  plunge  it  into  clean  water,  and  from  that  to  the  hypo,  for 
clearing,  of  usual  strength  ;  then  wash  as  usual.  Thick  paper  needs  longer  and  stronger 
cleaning  than  thin.  If  the  print  comes  up  too  flat  in  developing,  add  a  little  acid  silver  solu- 
tion to  the  pyro. — A.  HESLER. 

My  method  of  enlarging  common  card  nega- 
tives is  as  follows:  I  made  a  box  seven  feet 
long,  fitting  my  10  x  12  shield  and  ground-glass 
the  same  as  on  my  camera.  By  placing  two 
movable  slides  inside  of  the  box,  marked  A  and 
B,  fastened  to  rods  D,  D,  slide  A  is  fitted  so  as  to 
hold  quarter  or  half  size  plates.  By  a  movable 

frame  fastened  on  slide  A,  slide  B  is  to  hold  a  quarter-  or  half-size  lens.     The  slide  B  is  also 
fastened  to  rod  D,  running  under  the  box  in  a  groove  so  as  to  exclude  all  light;  c  is  to  hold 
20 


FIG.  95. 


306  WILSON'S   PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

349.  Up  to  within  a  twain  of  years,  the  usual  results  produced  by  means 
of  the  solar  camera  would  not  hear  comparison  with  those  from  contact 
negatives,  and  to  render  them  at  all  tolerable  they  must  be  retouched  or 
worked  in  color  in  some  way.  This  was  due  to  the  fact  that  every  defect 
in  the  tiny  negative  must  be  greatly  enlarged,  and  of  course  made  so  much 
more  obtrusive  in  the  print.  This  gave  rise  to  several  methods  of  pre- 
paring the  negatives  so  that  these  blemishes  would  be  almost  entirely 
overcome.  A  g.reat  deal  of  money  has  been  paid  to  obtain  the  "  secret" 

ground-glass  and  shield.  By  placing  the  negative  in  slide  A,  and  moving  the  rods  D,  D,  you 
can  get  any  size  transparency,  by  which  you  can  make  fine  negatives  of  any  size,  or  as  many 
negatives  from  the  transparency  as  you  wish.  This  is  a  cheap  way  of  making  enlargements, 
and  will  well  serve  those  who  cannot  afford  a  solar  camera  for  such  small  work. — -NEAL  P. 
HARRINGTON. 

349.  My  solutions  for  reducing  the  negative  are,  viz.  : 

No.  1. — Bichloride  of  Mercury, 3  grains. 

Rain  Water,    ...........       1  ounce. 

No.  2 — Iodide  of  Potassium,       .........       3  grains. 

Rain  Water, 1  ounce. 

To  reduce,  flow  the  negative  with  No.  1  and  wash  under  the  tap.     Flow  the  negative  with 
No.  2  and  wash  under  the  tap.     Fix  in  cyanide  and  wash  under  the  tap.     If  not  sufficiently 
reduced,  repeat  above  until  satisfactory. — F.  C.  PHILLIPS. 
For  the  retouching  preparation  use 

French  Sheet  Gelatin, 1  ounce. 

Rain  Water,    ...........     18  ounces. 

Acetic  Acid,    ...........       4  ounce. 

Filter  through  a  fine  sponge  in  a  warm  place.  While  the  negative  is  wet,  flow  with  the 
retouching  preparation,  only  in  sufficient  quantity  to  dry  with  a  gloss,  holding  level  over 
lamp  or  stove  until  thoroughly  dried.  Grind  with  sifted  pumice-stone  or  tripoli  all  parts 
where  retouching  is  needed,  If  too  much  tooth,  rub  with  Canton  flannel  and  retouch  (stipple) 
as  finely  as  possible.  Touch  in  the  lights  in  the  drapery  where  needed  with  a  soft  lead-pencil. 
Touch  the  laces  with  Florence  white.  Breathe  heavily  over  the  retouching  to  fasten  it.  If 
the  negative  is  warped,  find  a  glass  to  match  with  it  perfectly.  Warm  the  cover  glass  and 
pour  on  a  sufficient  quantity  of  balsam  of  fir  (hardened  by  heat)  to  flow  between  and  around 
the  edges,  leaving  a  bead  of  the  balsam  of  fir  all  around  the  edges  of  the  negative.  Bub 
the  negative  surface,  excepting  the  retouched  portion,  with  a  small  tuft  of  cotton  and  a  drop 
uf  sweet  oil,  removing  all  surplus  oil  with  clean  cotton.  After  the  glasses  are  together  and 
the  edges  are  completely  covered  with  balsam,  bind  the  edges  with  heavy  sticking-paper, 
rubbing  down  closely  over  the  edges,  to  exclude  the  air  and  prevent  the  balsam  from  coming 
out  while  printing.  The  glass  must  fit  closely  together  to  prevent  coming  apart  while  under 
the  heat  of  condenser.  Never  use  a  negative  smaller  than  cabinet  size  for  a  full  sheet  print. 
Use  a  half-size  portrait  tube  for  the  objective. — L.  W.  B. 

Instead  of  the  usual  varnish,  flow  with  a  solution  of  gelatin,  one  part  to  six  of  water  (or 
nearly  th'at  proportion),  holding  the  plate  level  over  a  strong  but  diffused  heat  until  the 


ENLARGEMENTS   AND    LANTERN    SLIDES.  307 

of  these  processes,  and  patents  have  heen  obtained  for  modifications  of 
them,  but  it  is  believed  that  what  follows  is  good  and  free  to  all.  If  the 
negative  is  too  dense  for  solar  printing,  it  may  be  reduced,  then  retouched, 
and  finally  prepared  for  the  camera.  When  so  prepared  and  printed,  the 
results  may  be  quite  comparable  with  contact  or  direct  negative  prints. 

gelatin  sets  perfectly  smooth  and  glossy,  which  will  soon  be  acquired  by  practice.  Grind  in 
the  usual  way  with  pumice  to  make  a  tooth  for  retouching,  which  is  done  in  the  usual  style, 
being  careful  to  have  as  tine  as  possible.  After  the  retouching  is  done  breathe  on  the  film, 
which  blends  it  into  the  gelatin,  so  that  it  may  be  rubbed  over  with  oil,  glycerin,'  or  any 
other  substance,  giving  a  transparent  film  free  from  grain  or  line.  A  little  salicylic  or  No.  8 
acetic  acid,  or,  better,  ten  drops  of  a  saturated  solution  of  alum,  will  preserve  the  gelatin 
from  decomposition,  and  keep  it  from  dissolving  again.  —  C.  TOMLINSON. 
To  one  quart  of  rain  water  add 


Alum,      . 

Bichloride  of  Mercury, 
Loaf  Sugar, 
Acetic  Acid, 


To  reduce  the  intensity  of  the  negative,  flow  over  (after  clearing  and  washing)  with  this 
solution.  Then  wash  and  flow  with  strong  cyanide  of  potassium,  wash  and  repeat  as  often 
as  necessary,  to  reduce  to  proper  intensity.  Then  flow  with  gelatin,  and  dry,  and  retouch 
finely.  Now  take  another  glass,  perfectly  clear,  and  flow  over  with  pure  balsam  of  fir; 
heat  both  negative  and  other  glass,  and  then  place  them  together  ;  use  two  pairs  of  wooden 
pincers  to  fasten  them.  See  that  no  air  remains  between  the  glasses,  and  finish  by  pasting 
gum  paper  around  the  edges.  By  following  this  process  no  one  need  have  any  trouble  to  get 
fine  solar  negatives  of  any  intensity,  as  you  can  reduce  your  negative  as  far  as  you  wish, 
and  stop  —  N.  P.  HARRINGTON. 

I  will  try  and  give  you  something  that  is  practical  in  the  way  of  a  solar-printing  process 
that  has  no  patent,  and  is  equal  to  the  best.  It  takes  less  preparation,  and  the  same  nega- 
tive is  just  as  good  for  contact-printing  afterwards  as  ever.  In  this  process  any  contact 
negative  may  be  used.  Made  in  the  ordinary  way  and  nicely  retouched,  it  is  all  ready  for  use 
with  the  following  directions  :  Take  the  negative  and  with  a  piece  of  chamois  skin  carefully 
clean  off  all  finger-marks,  being  careful  not  to  disturb  the  retouching  ;  now  take  another 
glass  of  the  same  size,  free  from  scratches  and  blisters,  clean  it  thoroughly  ;  next  get  a  piece 
of  India-rubber  tubing  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  lay  the  rubber  tube  on  the 
negative  all  around  the  edges,  except  a  small  space  at  one  end,  leaving  an  opening  between 
the  two  ends  of  about  one-half  inch  ;  now  lay  the  other  glass  on  to  the  rubber  and  bind  the 
two  together,  this  will  leave  a  space  about  one-eighth  inch  between  ;  now  at  the  end  where 
you  have  left  the  open  space,  pour  in  pure  glycerin  until  it  is  filled  up  ;  now  place  your  nega- 
tive in  the  proper  position  in  the  solar,  and  it  is  ready  for  printing,  and  will  make  a  soft  and 
delicate  print  in  much  less  time  than  it  would  take  otherwise;  the  glycerin  coming  in  con- 
tact with  the  retouching,  obliterates  all  marks  of  the  pencil  and  makes  it  more  transparent, 
and  the  result  is  a  fine,  soft  photograph,  full  of  detail  and  roundness,  often  surpassing  the 
contact-print.  After  the  negative  has  done  its  work,  separate  the  glasses  and  wipe  off  the 
glycerin,  and  your  negatives  are  all  ready  to  make  contact-cards  again.  In  placing  the 


308 


WILSON'S    PHOTOGKAPHICS. 


350.  So  far  it  would  seem  that  the  only  method  of  making  enlarge- 
ments is  by  means  of  solar  or  sunlight,  but  such  is  not  the  case.  The 
ordinary  magic  lantern  may  be  made  to  serve  in  place  of  the  sun  and 
provide  artificial  light  of  sufficient  intensity  to  answer  every  purpose. 
And  again,  light  through  the  camera  may  be  dispensed  with  and  a  tracing 
apparatus  be  made  to  do  when  necessity  or  convenience  compels  it.  The 
Philadelphia  Photographer  must  now  be  called  upon  to  give  up  some  of  its 
information  to  tell  us  how. 

negative  in  the  solar,  put  it  in  the  usual  way,  the  retouched  surface  facing  the  paper,  and 
.print  through  the  glycerin,  unless  you  wish  to  make  a  reversed  picture.  The  glass  does  not 
seem  to  become  near  as  hot  in  printing  as  by  the  old  process,  thereby  lessening  the  danger 
of  breakages. — E.  P.  LIBBY. 

"When  printing  from  a  coarse,  hard  negative,  one  that  is  badly  varnished  perhaps,  and  a 
good  clean  and  soft  print  is  desirable,  or  a  print  from  any  solar  negative  is  wanted  that 
will  need  no  spotting,  proceed  as  follows  :  Print  about  half  done,  then  lay  over  the  un- 
finished print  a  piece  of  ground-glass  same  size  of  the  print,  and  always  with  the  ground 
side  towards  the  condenser,  and  continue  printing.  This  will  have  a  softening  effect,  with- 
out affecting  the  sharpness  ;  ordinary  blemishes  disappear  as  if  by  magic,  and  a  good  print  is 
made  possible  by  this  means  from  negatives  that  would  ordinarily  yield  bad  results.  Try  it. 

— C.  A.  ZlMMEKMAN. 

350.  Drawings  of  the  needful  apparatus  for  solar  printing  by  artificial  light  are  as  follows  : 
A  box,  G,  surmounted  by  a  chimney,  H,  or,  in  other  words,  the  box  of  a  magic  lantern,  in- 
cludes the  blow-pipe  and  other  apparatus  nec- 
essary for  producing  the  light.  A  triple  sys- 
tem of  condensers,  say  five  inches  in  diameter, 
is  placed  laterally  upon  the  box  at  A.  To  this 
the  parts  of  a  solar  camera  described  are  to  be 
attached  in  the  manner  shown  in  the  cut,  so 
that  the  negative  is  at  o,  and  the  amplifying 
objective  is  at  D.  The  blow-pipe  should  have 
its  luminous  point  exactly  in  the  focus  of  the 
condensing  lenses.  For  this  purpose  the  ob- 
jective, D,  is  used  as  a  guide,  the  luminous 
cone  passing  freely  through  it.  By  advancing 
the  blow-pipe  towards  the  interior  lens,  or  by 
drawing  it  back,  the  brilliancy  of  the  field 
may  be  considerably  varied,  and  it  is  therefore 
necessary  to  pay  particular  attention  to  this 
point.  As  the  luminous  point  of  the  blow- 
pipe is  variable  in  the  direction  of  the  height, 
it  is  by  means  of  the  rack  and  pinion  attached 
that  the  luminous  point  may  always  be  brought 

on  the  axis  of  the  apparatus.     This  apparatus  is  arranged  for  the  oxyhydrogen  light,  but  an 
oil  sciopticon  may  be  adapted  to  the  same  kind  of  work,  acting  more  slowly,  of  course. 


FIG.  96. 


ENLARGEMENTS    AND    LANTERN    SLIDES. 


309 


351.  A  great  many  photographers  cannot  afford  a  solar  camera,  and  an 
apparatus  that  would  enable  them  to  have  some  of  its  advantages  will 
doubtless  be  of  service  to  them.  All  photographers,  after  the  careful 
study  of  Grihon's  Photographic  Color  ists'- Guide,  can  make  good  use  of  their 
spare  time  in  crayoning,  and  inking  or  coloring  enlargements  from  their 

The  next  figure  represents  the  general  arrangement  of  the  apparatus  in  use,  including  the 
gas-bags  for  the  gases  used,  and  all  the  connections  necessary.  Such  an  enlarging  apparatus 
as  this  may  also  be  used  with  artificial  light  FIG.  97. 

for  making,  with  wet  collodion,  large  nega- 
tives on  glass  from  a  small  positive  on  glass, 
which  requires  an  exposure  of  but  a  few  sec- 
onds.— DR.  D.  VON  MONCKHOVEN. 

351.  My  invention  is  for  tracing  or  sketch- 
ing for  crayon  or  other  portraits.  It  can  be 
used  by  any  one,  and  for  enlarging  any  object 
that  can  be  attached  to  the  top,  which  is  to  con- 
tain the  picture,  face  down.  It  can  be  made 
for  any  size,  from  8  x  10  to  life-size.  The  lens, 
the  movable  front  for  focussing,  clamps  for 
holding  the  movable  top,  which  is  adjusted  from  inside,  and  governs  the  size  of  the  object, 
and  the  reflector,  to  throw  strong  sunlight  on  the  object,  will  all  be  seen  in  the  diagram; 
also,  the  table  or  stand  upon  which  the  paper,  or  material  upon  which  to  draw  the  image  as 
it  is  reflected  down,  is  placed.  This  is  a  very  useful  instrument  for  any  gallery,  as  any  card 
can  be  enlarged  to  a  perfect  8  x  10,  or  larger,  to  show  the  customer  how  he  would  appear  in 
a  large  portrait,  which  might  induce  him  to  have  one  made.  The  one  I  have  is  intended  for 
ft  ten-inch  head,  or  from  that  down  to  8  x  10.  It  is  two 
feet  square  at  the  base,  four  feet  high,  fifteen  inches  wide 
jit  the  centre,  with  a  twelve-inch  arm  to  the  reflector. 
The  reflector  has  three  movements,  or  six,  counting  the 
backward  movements.  The  movable  box  has  only  two 
movements,  up  and  down,  for  governing  the  size  of  the 
reflection.  The  box  is  nine  inches  square,  one  inside  of 
the  other,  fastened  with  a  thumb-screw  inside  of  the 
front  curtain.  The  movable  top  is  raised  and  lowered 
from  the  inside,  and  fastened  by  a  clamp  with  a  thumb- 
screw in  front.  The  thumb-screw  is  ten  inches  long,  to 
reach  clear  across  the  front.  The  strip  across  the  cen- 
tre, holding  the  reflector,  is  eighteen  inches  long.  The 
box  or  frame  work  is  covered  with  soft  flannel,  and  lined 
with  thick  yellow  paper,  so  no  light  gets  in  save  the  re- 
flected light.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  image  is  very 
strong,  and  has  the  appearance  of  a  finished  picture. 
The  rays  falling  in  at  the  top  make  it  a  very  pleasant 
light  to  work  in,  just  right  for  comfort,  something  like  twilight.  It  takes  one  to  trace  by 
measure,  as  all  portraits  do  on  canvas  or  cardboard,  from  two  to  four  hours.  An  artist 


310  WILSON'S   PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

negatives.  The  first  step  is  to  procure  the  enlarged  sketches  of  the  pic- 
ture you  propose  to  make.  This  can  be  done  by  means  of  the  apparatus 
which  is  described  below  by  the  inventor,  if  you  have  not  a  solar  camera. 

352.  The  popularity  which  the  'magic  lantern  is  gaining  makes  it  an 
advantage  to  know  how  to  produce  transparencies  for  it,  for  enlargement 
upon  the  screen.     True,  the  best  and   most  interesting  subjects  come 
from  abroad,  but  since  the  modern  lecturer  scarcely  dare  appear  upon 
the  stage  without  a  lantern  to  assist  him,  he  must  often  call  upon  the 
local  photographer  to  make  special  slides  for  him.     The  photographer, 
then,  should  have  a  few  plain  directions  how  to  proceed.     If  the  "wet" 
process  is  used,  an  arrangement  similar  to  that  shown  in  the  drawing  is 

employed,  two  cameras  of,  say,  8x10 
s^ze  ^emg  placed  front  to  front  upon 
an  inclined  platform  in  a  room  with  a 
southern  exposure.  The  negative  is 
fastened  in  the  upper  end,  and  the 
holder  containing  the  sensitized  plate 
is  placed  at  the  back  of  the  other 
camera.  Careful  focussing,  clean 
plates,  ripe  collodion,  exact  exposure, 
and  thoughtful  development  are  all 
needed. 

353.  The  usual  size  for  a  lantern  slide  is  3Jx4J  inches.     Of  course, 

rarely  crayons  two  heads  alike  from  the  same  picture,  and  do  his  best.  I  can  with  this  make 
eight  sketches  with  ten-inch  head  in  less  than  an  hour,  and  have  them  alike  every  time,  for 
I  will  not  change  the  focus,  and  pin  the  paper  each  time  at  the  same  place.  Changing  the 
position  of  the  reflector  does  not  change  the  reflection,  as  it  leaves  the  picture  every  time 
alike.  This  is  not  usually  the  case  with  a  solar  printer.  I  am  a  great  friend  to  the  solar 
camera,  but  I  can,  by  using  a  condenser,  do  the  same  work  by  this. — S.  L.  PLATT. 

353.  A  good  bromo-iodized  collodion  tolerably  ripe,  with  a  bath  in  good  working  condition 
for  negatives,  will  give  good  results.  We  give  a  full  exposure,  and  develop  rapidly  with  an 
iron  solution  containing  a  large  proportion  of  acetic  acid — about  fifteen  grains  of  the  iron 
salt  and  thirty  minims  of  acetic  acid  to  the  ounce  of  water.  This  gives  a  transparency  in 
which  the  deposit  is,  by  transmitted  light,  of  a  warm,  purple-brown  tone.  If  a  blacker  tone 
be  required,  it  is  easily  obtained  by  using  the  gelatino-iron  developer,  though  a  black  color  is 
not  the  best.  Where  a  very  black  tone,  both  by  reflected  and  transmitted  light,  is  required, 
toning  by  means  of  bichloride  of  mercury,  followed  by  a  dilute  solution  of  ammonia,  or  of 
hyposulphite  of  soda,  gives  excellent  effects.  For  the  magic  lantern,  transparencies  are  best 
toned  by  a  saturated  solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury,  followed  by  a  weak  solution  of 
hydrosulphate  of  ammonia,  care  being  taken  to  well  wet  the  plate  before  applying  the 
mercury  solution,  and  wash  well  between  each  operation.  The  color  will  be  determined  by  the 


ENLARGEMENTS    AND    LANTERN    SLIDES.  311 

the  image  should  come  within  this,  for  a  margin  must  be  allowed  for  a 
mat.  Focus  in  the  centre  of  the  plate,  and  use  the  smallest  diaphragm. 
The  positives  may  or  may  not  be  toned ;  if  they  are,  gold  may  be  used, 
or,  better,  sulphuret  of  potassium.  After  the  manipulations  are  over  and 
the  transparency  varnished,  a  mat  and  a  cover-glass  are  placed  over  it, 

strength  of  the  hydrosulphate  of  ammonia  solution.  Experience  alone  will  determine  the  best 
proportion,  but  about  six  drops  to  the  ounce  of  water  will  be  found  an  average  proportion. 
To  test  their  suitability  for  the  lantern  lay  them  on  white  paper;  the  lights  should  show 
only  white  paper,  but  the  shadows  should  be  perfectly  black.  The  following  method  of  toning 
transparencies,  whether  produced  on  wet  collodion  or  dry  plates,  gives  a  rich,  warm,  brown- 
black,  very  nearly  resembling  the  well-known  color  of  the  albumen  transparencies  of  Messrs. 
Terrier  and  Soulier.  It  is  necessary  to  observe  that  a  thin,  slightly  over-exposed  transparency 
is  best  suited  for  the  treatment.  After  fixing  and  washing  take  a  little  of  the  pyrogallic 
developer,  a  few  drops  of  the  silver  solution,  and  a  few  drops  of  glacial  acetic  acid;  pour  it 
on  and  oif  the  plate  until  the  picture  is  nearly  as  vigorous  as  you  require  it  to  be  when 
finished.  Wash  well,  and  apply  a  saturated  solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury  until  the 
image  is  quite  white.  Wash  again  thoroughly.  Next  take  a  thirty-grain  solution  of 
ammonio-nitrate  of  silver,  and  pour  it  on  the  plate — it  immediately  changes  to  a  greenish 
yellow  tint,  and  gradually  darkens ;  add  a  drop  or  two  of  ammonia,  it  will  hasten  the  change 
of  color,  and  very  soon  the  picture  will  stand  out  bright  and  clear,  of  a  brown  sepia  color. 
If  the  transparency  be  varnished,  a  fine  textureless  varnish  should  be  used,  and  great  care 
used  to  avoid  dust.  In  many  cases  a  greater  degree  of  richness  and  transparency  in  the 
shadows  is  obtained  by  varnishing ;  but  where  the  photograph  is  perfect,  it  is  better  un- 
varnished, the  picture  being  protected  by  a  thin  glass  instead.  If  ground-glass  be  used  at 
the  back,  it  should  be  very  fine;  but  the  benzole  varnish  known  as  "crystal  varnish,"  with 
two  or  three  grains  of  white  wax  to  each  ounce,  forms  an  excellent  substitute  for  ground- 
glass,  drying  semi-opaque  with  a  fine  texture.  A  thin  solution  of  starch  applied,  but  not  too 
hot,  also  forms  an  excellent  substitute  for  ground-glass.  For  the  magic  lantern,  a  semi- 
opaque  backing  is  not,  of  course,  required. — J.  TRAILL  TAYLOR. 

I  have  fallen  back  on  a  modification  of  the  old  wet  process,  borrowing  from  different 
workers  the  formulae  employed.  The  bath,  which  should  be  sunned  and  filtered  before 
adding  the  acids,  is  composed  of 

Silver  Nitrate,         •*••.•••••£  ounce. 

Water, 10  ounces. 

Nitric  Acid,     ......  ....       3  drops. 

Acetic  Acid, 12      " 

The  plates  are  coated  with  a  ripe  collodion,  being  first  rubbed  with  French  chalk,  and 
immersed  for  at  least  five  minutes.  I  develop  in  a  glass-bottomed  dish  with  the  following: 

Pyrogallic  Acid, 30  grains. 

Citric  Acid, 1  drachm. 

Acetic  Acid, 2  drachms. 

Alcohol, .        .        .        .        .        . 2       " 

Nitric  Acid, 7  drops. 

Water; 10  ounces, 

and  fix  with  hyposulphite  of  soda.     The  developer  acts  slowly,  so  that  density  and  detail  are 


312  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHJCS. 

and  the  whole  sealed  together  by  means  of  a  border  or  binding  of  black 
needle-paper. 

354.  There  are  several  other  methods  besides  the  "wet"  of  producing 
these  beautiful  pictures.  The  "wet"  is  easiest  because  most  like  the 
ordinary  work  of  the  photographer,  but,  by  means  of  it,  a  film  is  given 

well  under  control ;  and,  as  lantern  slides  often  require  strong  contrasts,  this  is  an  advantage. 
Another  advantage  of  this  developer  is,  that  it  yields  a  pleasing  tone  at  once  without  requiring 
the  after  application  of  chloride  of  gold,  etc..  which  is  necessary  when  the  pictures  are  devel- 
oped with  iron.  The  transparencies  are  best  taken  in  the  camera,  and,  with  ordinary  care  and 
judgment,  this  process  will  reward  the  operator  with  very  good  specimens. — REV.  B.  HOLLAND. 

I  always  make  the  sulphuret  solution  a  deep  orange  color  and  filter  before  using,  as  the 
same  strength  does  not  answer  for  every  sample  of  collodion.  I  test  by  pouring  on  a  plate, 
not  wishing  it  so  strong  that  it  will  in  a  second  or  so  turn  black,  but  it  should  take  several 
seconds,  sometimes  longer,  before  the  stain  is  deep  enough.  It  is  deep  enough  when  bluish, 
then  pour  off  the  solution  (do  not  use  the  same  again),  carry  the  plate  into  the  strong  light; 
looking  through,  watch  its  action.  When  it  has  passed  the  gray-blue  it  gradually  deepens; 
when  just  purple  douse  it  under  the  tap.  If  the  action  is  carried  any  further,  it  becomes  a 
deep  sepia,  which  will  flatten  the  picture ;  when  a  dark-blue,  or  what  will  appear  on  the 
screen  solid  black,  is  wanted,  stop  the  toning  at  the  gray-blue,  and  wash.  When  the  posi- 
tives are  overtimed,  it  is  impossible  to  get  any  other  than  a  sepia  tone.  When  under-exposed, 
they  are  hard.  New  collodion  not  too  thick  makes  the  best  positives,  as  they  have  not  that 
solidity  that  ripe  collodion  gives.  Very  old  collodion  has  some  of  the  same  properties 
of  new,  but  the  action  of  time  is  very  slow,  yet  good  results  can  be  obtained.  The  action  of 
sulphuret  of  potassium  as  a  toning  agent  is  peculiar,  as  it  makes  translucent  what  otherwise 
would  remain  smoky  or  a  mass  of  black  shadow.  For  reproducing  negatives,  the  toning  is 
omitted.  Place  the  negative  in  position,  varnish  side  out ;  give  time  until  full  detail  is  ob- 
tained with  a  quick  development;  fix  with  cyanide  of  potassium.  While  wet  place  the 
positive  in  the  place  of  the  negative,  face  outward,  and  expose  less  than  one  half  of  the  pre- 
vious exposure  by  ordinary  development.  By  this  means  a  negative  can  be  reproduced 
nearly  equal  to  the  original. — W.  L.  SHOEMAKER. 

354.  Transparencies  upon  collodion  cannot  match  those  on  albumen  in  any  way.  The 
film  is  so  fine  that  even  in  the  deepest  shadows  there  is  a  transparency,  and,  as  it  were,  de- 
tail, which  would  have  been  blocked  out  or  lost  in  a  collodion  film,  not  to  speak  of  the  rich 
tone  which  can  be  given  to  an  albumen  positive  with  very  little  pains.  Although  not  so 
rapid  as  collodion,  they  will  give  transparencies  superior  to  the  other.  I  will  now  treat  the 
subject  fully :  1.  The  dark-room;  2.  Preparation  of  albumen  ;  3.  Cleaning  and  polishing 
the  plate  ;  4.  Coating  the  plates  with  albumen  and  drying  ;  5.  Sensitizing  ;  6.  Exposure  and 
developing  ;  7.  Toning. 

The  first  subject  requires  the  most  care.  The  dark-room  must  be  very  small,  the  ceiling 
and  the  walls  painted  in  oil,  the  floor  laid  with  marble  or  slate  slabs,  a  large  sheet  of  plate- 
glass  fixed  to  serve  as  a  table,  a  kind  of  a  cupboard  with  levelled  glass  shelves,  and  as  few 
chemicals  as  possible.  This  is  what  the  dark-room  must  contain  in  order  to  prepare  albu- 
menized  plates  with  any  degree  of  certainty.  Dust  is  the  greatest  enemy  of  this  admirable 
process,  and  it  is  the  first  to  be  vanquished,  that  is  why  I  advise  a  small  room.  The  walls, 
ceiling,  and  floor  are  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  washed  now  and  then  to  take  off  the 


ENLARGEMENTS    AND    LANTERN    SLIDES. 


313 


which  is  not  nearly  BO  delicate  and  structureless  as  that  obtained  by  the 
albumen  or  emulsion  process.  Hints  as  to  both  of  these  are  given  in 
the  notes — as  much  as  will  enable  any  tasteful  manipulator  to  secure 

in   Fig.   100.     a,  plate-glass 


FIG.  100. 


dust.  The  drying -cupboard  is  made  of  varnished  zinc, 
shelves  the  same  width  as  the  cupboard,  but  an 
inch  and  a  half  shorter;  the  first  shelf  touches 
the  zinc  on  the  right-hand  side ;  the  second 
shelf  touches  the  zinc  cupboard  on  the  left- 
hand  side,  and  so  on,  alternately,  to  the  top 
of  the  cupboard.  On  the  right-hand  side  of 
the  bottom  of  the  cupboard  is  a  hole,  B,  over 
which  is  soldered  a  piece  of  fine  wire-gauze, 
covered  with  a  piece  of  fine  linen.  This  hole 
is  an  inlet  for  air,  and  the  fine  linen  acts  as  a 
filter  to  stop  dust  and  dirt  from  entering  with 
the  air.  It  would  be  well  even  to  dip  the 
linen  into  a  little  glycerin,  and  change  it  now 
and  then.  On  the  left-hand  side  of  the  top  is 
another  hole  which  forms  outlet  c ;  this  is 
covered  by  a  piece  of  sheet-iron  piping,  in  the 
interior  of  which  is  placed  a  Bunsen  burner,  D. 
The  prepared  plates  having  been  laid  upon  the 
glass  shelves,  the  doors,  E  E  are  closed.  The 

Bunsen  burner  lighted,  a  draught  is  established  in  the  chimney,  and  fresh  air  is  drawn 
through  hole,  B,  which,  following  the  arrows,  Fig.  101,  passes  over  the  surface  of  all  the  plates 
and  dries  them  very  quickly  5  if  the  air  be  very  damp,  it  can  be  made  to  pass  through  chloride 
of  calcium.  In  fact,  it  can  now  be  seen  that  to  succeed  with  this  process  great  cleanliness  ia 
required,  and  above  all,  great  care  not  to  open  doors  too 
rapidly,  or  go  in  and  out  of  the  dark-room  too  frequently, 
so  as  to  raise  the  dust.  I  dwell  very  long  upon  this  subject, 
being  certain  that  this  is  one  of  the  greatest  stumbling- 
blocks  in  the  process. 

In  preparing  the  albumen,  take  seventeen  newly-laid 
eggs  (eggs  a  week  old  are  the  best),  break  them,  and  care- 
fully separate  the  yolks  from  the  whites  ;  take  out  the  germs 
(treadles).  Weigh  out  five  grammes  of  iodide  of  potassium, 
one-quarter  gramme  iodine,  mix  therewith  five  hunded  c.  c. 
of  albumen,  then  pour  into  a  large  basin  and  whisk  into  a 
froth  ;  this  is  allowed  to  remain  twenty-four  hours  in  a  cool 
place  to  settle  down  ;  the  product  is  then  filtered  through  a 
piece  of  clean  linen,  and  is  then  ready  for  use. 

Cleaning  of  the  glass  :  It  can  be  easily  understood  that 
the  first  condition  to  obtain  a  pure  and  perfect  image  is  to 
cleanse  the  surface  of  the  glass  from  all  impurities.     This  is  done  by  plunging,  first  of  all, 
the  glass  in  a  strong  solution  of  potash;  it  is  then  well  washed  and  left  for  a  few  minutes 


FIG.  101. 


B 


314  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

lovely  results.  A  great  many  persons  fail  with  lantern  slides  who  make 
excellent  negatives.  The  greatest  judgment  is  required  in  the  matter  of 
exposure  and  development.  It  is  impossible  to  save  an  over-timed  trans- 
parency, and  an  intense  one  is  of  no  use  in  the  lantern.  As  to  the  emul- 
sion method,  refer  also  to  Lesson  U. 

in  a  tray  containing  water  slightly  acidulated  with  nitric  acid  ;  it  is  then  well  rinsed  and 
wiped  dry  with  linen  towels.  Take  fine  whiting  and  with  water  make  a  thick  paste,  and 
wipe  or  spread  it  all  over  the  glass  and  allow  it  to  dry,  then  rub  it  all  off  with  a  piece  of 
fine  linen.  A  few  grains  of  talc  (I  mean  as  much  as  would  lie  upon  a  pin's  head)  are  now 
put  upon  the  glass,  and  rubbed  over  it  in  every  direction  with  a  piece  of  wash-leather.  A 
badger-brush  is  now  drawn  over  the  surface,  and  the  glass  is  neady  for  coating 

Coating  the  plate  is  considered  by  all  as  the  most  difficult  operation.  This  must  be  done 
in  a  room  set  apart  for  the  express  purpose  and  free  from  dust.  The  best  manner  of  operating 
is  to  take  up  by  a  tube  the  exact  quantity  of  albumen  required  for  each  plate ;  breathe  upon 
the  glass,  and  let  the  albumen  run  out  of  the  tube ;  take  a  clean  glass  rod  and  equalize  it  all 
over  the  surface,  and  then  put  it  into  the  cupboard,  upon  the  levelled  glass  shelves,  to  dry  in 
the  manner  as  previously  described.  The  plates  thus  prepared  can  be  kept  for  years. 

Sensitizing  is  done  in  the  same  manner  as  with  the  collodion  process.  The  bath  is  prepared 
as  follows : 

Distilled  Water, 100  ounces. 

Nitrate  of  Silver, 10       " 

Glacial  Acetic  Acid,        .  10      " 

After  the  plate  has  remained  about  a  minute,  it  is  taken  out  of  the  bath  and  plunged  into 
a  tray  containing  distilled  water;  it  is  then  thoroughly  washed  in  ordinary  water  and  left 
to  dry.  After  a  time  the  silver-bath  becomes  tinted  through  the  organic  matter  dissolved 
out  of  the  plates.  This  color  can  be  taken  away  by  the  addition  to  the  bath  of  some  chloride 
of  silver  or  silicate  of  alumina  (kaolin).  This  coloration  does  not  exercise  any  bad  effect, 
according  to  the  opinion  of  several  manipulators. 

Exposure  and  developing  :  If  the  plates  are  intended  for  stereoscopic  transparencies,  lan- 
tern slides,  etc.,  the  negative  is  put  into  a  printing-frame,  and  the  prepared  glass  upon  it. 
It  is  then  exposed  to  a  diffused  light  for  a  few  seconds,  and  then  taken  into  the  dark-room  to 
be  developed ;  naturally,  the  camera  can  be  employed  for  the  same  purpose.  The  develop- 
ment of  these  plates  is  long  and  tedious.  A  solution  of  gallic  acid  is  made  warm  and  the 
plate  plunged  into  it : 

Distilled  Water, 500  c.  c. 

Gallic  Acid, 8  grammes. 

Acetate  of  Lime, 4        " 

The  plate  is  left  in  this  solution  until  the  liquid  becomes  cold,  a  few  drops  of  a  solution  of  sil- 
ver nitrate  are  added,  and  the  image  makes  its  appearance.  More  nitrate  will  intensify  rapidly. 

Toning  glass  transparencies  is  necessary  to  give  them  the  pleasant  appearance  they  bear. 
To  have  a  beautiful  purple  color,  they  are  toned  in  a  chloride  of  gold  bath.  To  procure  a 
very  agreeable  sepia  color,  they  are  plunged  into  a  weak  solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury, 
and  then,  after  washing,  into  a  chloride  of  gold  bath.  Fix  in  hypo,  either  before  or  after 
toning. — PKOF.  E.  STUBBING. 


ENLARGEMENTS    AND    LANTERN    SLIDES.  315 

There  is  no  doubt  but  what  the  emulsion  method  will,  in  time,  become 
the  favorite  one  for  making  slides.  It  can  be  used  "dry"  when  the 
positives  are  to  be  of  the  size  of  the  negative,  or  "wet"  when  a  change 
in  size  must  be  made,  requiring  the  use  of  the  camera.  The  best  foreign 
slides  are  made  by  a  kindred  process,  and  they  are  superior  to  all. 


It  i&  now  between  seven  and  eight  years  since  I  exhibited  before  the  South  London 
tographic  Society  some  plates  —  both  negatives  and  transparencies  —  I  had  at  that  time 
prepared,  and  which,  I  believe,  were  the  first  publicly  shown  produced  by  the  gelatin  pro- 
cess. I  still  have  some  of  these  specimens  by  me.  They  are  quite  as  fresh  and  as  brilliant 
as  when  first  made,  and  the  clear  parts  are  as  clear  as  the  glass  itself.  This,  I  think,  proves 
there  is  little  amiss  with  the  process.  I  will  now  endeavor  to  point  out  the  causes  of  failure. 
One  of  these  arises  in  the  preparation  of  the  plates,  and  to  those  who  are  interested  in  this 
branch  of  work  my  advice  is,  Do  not  aim  at  making  very  rapid  plates.  Great  rapidity  in 
transparency  work  leads  up  to  failure  ;  the  slower  the  plate  the  more  certain  and  more  brilliant 
will  be  the  result.  When  I  say  the  fraction  of  a  second  is  quite  exposure  enough  with  even 
a  slow  plate,  I  fancy  I  hear  some  one  say,  "  Well,  the  plates  cannot  be  very  slow."  Well, 
perhaps  not,  if  compared  with  the  old  collodion  dry  plate  ;  but  we  are  not  now  dealing  with 
collodion  but  with  gelatin,  therefore  the  conditions  are  all  altered.  I  believe  it  is  from  not 
fully  appreciating  the  necessity  for  rapid  exposures  that  so  many  fail  in  transparency  work. 
The  exposure  has  been  too  long  —  the  result,  thin  image  and  fog  ;  and  when  this  occurs  by  no, 
possibility  can  a  presentable  transparency  be  obtained.  The  most  expeditious  and  certain 
way  to  make  transparencies  is  to  make  them  by  contact.  If  necessary  to  enlarge  or  reduce 
the  image,  then,  of  course,  it  must  be  done  in  the  camera.  In  most  negatives  there  are 
some  portions  that  may  be  made  use  of  for  lantern  sides.  In  this  case  all  you  have  to  do  is 
to  cut  a  mask  in  black  paper  the  size  you  require  for  your  lantern  slide,  put  the  negative 
into  a  printing-frame,  place  the  mask  in  position,  then  the  sensitive  plate,  close  the  frame, 
cover  the  front  with  a  piece  of  cardboard,  take  it  into  the  light,  uncover  and  cover  again  as 
quickly  as  possible,  giving  only  the  fraction  of  a  second  for  the  exposure.  I  am  now  sup- 
posing we  are  working  by  daylight.  If  by  gas  or  a  paramne  lamp,  hold  the  frame  about 
six  or  eight  inches  from  the  flame,  and  give  from  one  to  two  seconds,  according  to  the  density 
of  the  negative  used.  When  exposed,  the  development  may  be  the  same  as  in  my  instruc- 
tions for  negatives,  with  either  the  alkaline  pyro  or  ferrous  oxalate.  After  development 
well  wash,  and  then  flood  the  plate  with  acid  pyro  and  silver  (see  also  instructions  for  mix- 
ing). The  pyro  and  silver  is  only  used  to  give  a  bite  to  the  gold  in  toning.  Again  well 
wash  after  the  pyro  and  silver  ;  then  flood  the  plate  with  a  fifteen-grain  solution  of  chloride 
of  gold  in  water  —  gold  twelve  drops,  water  one  ounce.  Keep  this  moving  over  the  plate 
until  the  required  tone  is  obtained,  again  wash  and  pour  over  the  plate  a  very  weak  solution 
of  cyanide  of  potassium  ;  wash  and  dry.  If  the  cyanide  be  not  used,  the  plates  will  after  a 
time  present  a  beautiful  pinkish  tint  in  the  transparent  parts,  which  in  some  subjects  has  a 
very  pretty  effect.  After  the  first  fixing  in  hypo  all  the  rest  of  the  operations  may  —  in  fact, 
should  —  be  carried  on  in  the  light,  as  in  that  case  you  can  see  exactly  what  you  are  about. 
It  is  always  better  when  preparing  lantern  slides  to  cut  them  to  the  size  before  coating. 
This  prevents  all  risks  of  their  being  spoiled  by  cutting  after  the  transparency  is  finished.  — 
R.  KENNET. 


LESSON"    X. 


PHOTOTYPES,   PLATINOTYPES,  AND    COLLODION    TRANSFERS. 


FIG.  102. 


355.  THERE  are  a  great  many  methods  of  printing  photographic  pictures 
by  mechanical  means.  A  negative  is  made  in  about  the  usual  way,  and 
if  the  prints  are  to  appear  right  and  left  as  in  nature,  it  must  be  reversed, 
either  in  the  camera  or  transferred  after  it  is  made.  A  print  is  made 
from  the  negative  upon  a  gelatin  film  sensitized  with  a  bichromate. 
This  film-print  is  affixed  to  lithographic  stone,  metal,  glass,  or  some  other 
hard,  even  surface,  and  then  the  impressions,  or  prints,  are  pulled  from 
it  much  the  same  as  the  common  lithograph  is  printed.  The  process  is 
not  practical  for  the  every-day  work  of  the  photographer  whose  patronage 

355.  APPARATUS  FOR  REVERSING  THE  NEGATIVE. — The  increasing  employment  of  late 
of  reversed  negatives  (for  the  carbon,  artotype,  asphaltum,  and  other  processes)  induced  us 
to  construct  an  apparatus  with  which  not  the  object  itself,  but  its  reflected  image,  is  photo- 
graphed directly  as  reversed.  The  apparatus  consists  of  a 
rectangular  prismatic  box  of  mahogany,  on  the  plane  of  the 
hypothenuse  of  which  a  mirror  oV  prism  is  placed  in  such  a  way 
as  to  allow  of  easy  and  exact  regulation  of  its  position  from 
the  outside  through  the  three  screws  appearing  in  the  illustra- 
tion. One  of  the  planes  of  the  casette  is  closed  with  a  rough 
board,  .to  protect  the  mirror  or  prism.  In  order  to  fasten  the 
apparatus  to  the  camera,  it  is  unscrewed  from  this  closing 
board,  and  screwed  with  the  same  plane  on  to  the  objective 
side  of  the  camera.  The  other  plane  is  closed  with  a  mov- 
able board,  which  serves  to  hold  the  objective.  The  position 
of  the  mirror  or  prism  is  correct  as  soon  as  the  image, 
reflected  through  the  objective,  appears  in  a  perfectly  circular 
form  upon  the  dull  disk,  and  this  position  is  easily  regulated 
by  the  screws.  The  apparatus  is  furnished  with  either  a  rectangular,  complete  reflecting 
crown-glass  prism  of  superior  finish  or  with  a  mirror.  The  latter  consists  of  a  perfectly 
plain  ground-glass  plate,  the  front  side  of  which  is  well  silvered,  and  which  is  of  such  reflect- 
ing power  that  only  a  very  slight  loss  of  light  occurs,  which  does  not  occasion  any  disturb- 
ance even  in  portrait  photographing.  Mirror  and  prism  reflect  perfectly  correct,  and  are  of 
equal  merit  in  this  respect,  but  the  loss  of  light  is  even  yet  slighter  with  the  prism  than  with 
the  mirror. — ROMAIN  TALBOT. 

The   following   method  of  obtaining   reversed    negatives  was   described  by  Captain  O. 
(316) 


PHOTOTYPES,    PLATINOTYPES,  ETC.  317 

demands  only  small  lots  of  prints  from  any  one  negative ;  but  for  trade 
purposes  it  is  well  adapted,  and  is  largely  practised,  especially  in  Europe. 
There  are  many  modifications  sailing  under  various  claims  for  originality, 
and  patented,  but  it  is  believed  that  the  public  is  entitled  to  what  is 
given  below,  the  basis  of  it  having  been  published  by  one  of  the  earliest 
workers  in  "this  direction — Prof.  Husnik,  in  1875.  The  only  elaborate 
work  upon  the  subject  is  published  only  in  the  French  language  by  Mons. 

Volkmer,  as  in  use  at  the  Imperial  Military  Geographical  Institute,  Vienna.  The  negative 
is  wetted  and  coated  with  a  warm,  filtered  solution  of  gelatin,  one  to  thirty,  poured  in  and 
drained  off  just  like  cc  llodion,  and  then  dried  in  a  horizontal  position.  It  is  next  coated  with 
plain  collodion,  and  when  this  is  set  it  is  soaked  for  half  an  hour  in  a  dish  of  water,  and 
then  laid  down  flat  on  a  table.  A  sheet  of  thick,  well-sized  paper  having  been  cut  to  the 
size  of  the  picture  and  well  wetted  is  laid  down  on  the  collodion,  a  piece  of  blotting-paper 
is  placed  above  it  and  lightly  rolled  down  with  a  roller.  The  blotting-paper  is  then  removed, 
and  the  edges  of  the  collodion  film  having  been  cut  to  within  half  an  inch  of  the  paper  all 
round  are  turned  over  the  paper,  and  then  the  sheet  of  paper  with  the  film  attached  to  it  is 
lifted  off  the  plate.  A  sheet  of  paper  is  then  wetted  and  laid  down  flat  on  a  glass  plate,  and 
covered  with  a  solution  of  gum-arabic,  one  to  three.  The  collodion  film  is  then  laid  on  the 
gummed  surface,  with  the  paper  above  it ;  a  sheet  of  blotting-paper  is  put  over  it  and  rolled 
down.  After  the  removal  of  the  blotting-paper  the  turned-over  edges  of  the  collodion  film 
are  laid  back  on  the  gummed  paper,  and  the  first  sheet  of  paper  is  removed.  •  Finally,  a 
glass  plate  is  levelled  and  covered  with  as  much  water  as  it  will  carry.  The  collodion  film 
attached  to  the  gummed  paper  is  laid  face  downwards  upon  this,  and  the  water  drained  off. 
The  plate  is  then  laid  on  the  table  again,  covered  with  blotting-paper,  and  rolled.  The 
blotting-paper  is  then  removed,  and  the  gummed  paper  stripped  off.  The  plate  is  washed  to 
remove  all  traces  of  the  gum,  and  dried.  The  method  is  rather  complicated,  but  seems  an 
efficient  way  of  performing  a  rather  troublesome  operation. — MAJOR  T.  WATERHOUSE. 

To  produce  reversed  negatives  direct  in  the  camera  use  a  piece  of  ground-glass,  or  a  piece 
of  plain  glass  covered  with  mat  varnish  in  the  dark-slide  as  a  focussing-screen — the  dull 
surface  farthest  from  the  lens.  The  same  end  may  be  attained  by  pushing  the  dark  slides  a 
little  in  just  before  exposure,  or  by  turning  the  lens  a  trifle  back  after  focussing  in  the  usual 
way.  Now  use  a  gelatin  plate  with  the  glass  surface  nearest  the  lens,  simply  protecting  the 
film  from  injury  by  the  spring  of  the  dark-slide.  The  development  will,  of  course,  be 
according  to  the  directions  sent  out  by  the  makers  of  the  plate  used.  This  method  will  be 
found  to  produce  a  result  equal  to,  if  not  better  than,  any  of  the  systems  now  in  use. — 
ARTHUR  F.  FENTON. 

Having  by  the  following  method  reversed  some  hundreds  of  negatives  up  to  twenty-four 
by  eighteen  without  a  single  failure,  it  can  be  confidently  recommended  as  an  expedient 
where  a  reversed  negative  is  absolutely  necessary.  It  applies  only  to  collodion  negatives 
which  have  not  been  varnished.  After  the  negative  has  been  washed  and  dried,  coat  with  a 
thin  film  of  India-rubber  and  allow  to  dry.  Coat  over  the  India-rubber  with  plain 
collodion  and  dry  on  a  levelling-stand.  Cut  quite  through  the  film  at  the  edges  with  a  sharp 
knife.  Place  in  a  tray  of  cold  water,  and  in  a  few  minutes  the  corners  and  edges  will  be 
seen  to  lift.  Now,  by  taking  hold  of  two  corners,  the  slightest  touch  will  remove  the 


318  WILSON'S   PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

Leon  Vidal,  the  distinguished  photo-experimentalist  and  author,  of  Paris, 
from  whose  excellent  work,  Traite  Pratique  de  Phototype,  much  of  the  in- 
formation given  in  the  notes  is  gathered.  A  workable  process  is  thus 
provided  for  all  who  deem  it  to  their  advantage  to  test  its  value.  This  is 
the  only  photo-mechanical  process  it  is  believed  that  it  will  be  necessary 
to  treat  of  herein.  Proceed  as  below. 

356.  BASIS. — As  a  basis,  employ  a  polished  glass  plate,  three  lines  in 
thickness,  or  may  be  thicker.  These  plates  are  polished  mat  on  one  side 
by  rubbing  them  with  finely  levigated  emery  powder ;  the  powder  is 
moistened  with  a  little  water,  and  applied  to  the  glass  surface,  the  emery 
being  uniformly  moistened  by  rubbing  with  the  finger.  This  is  very 
necessary,  for  should  any  dry  emery  come  in  contact  with  the  glass,  deep 
scratches  are  at  once  produced.  Another  glass  plate  is  placed  upon  the 
one  covered  with  moist  emery,  and  the  former  is  rubbed  by  a  circular 
movement,  and  with  very  little  pressure.  In  a  few  moments  you  perceive 
that  the  noise  from  the  breaking  up  of  the  large  particles  ceases,  and  then 
more  pressure,  and  freer  and  quicker  manipulation  may  ensue.  For  about 
ten  minutes  the  task  should  be  continued,  the  grains  of  emery  becoming 
smaller  as  the  work  proceeds,  and  the  mat  surface  of  a  finer  character. 
If,  after  the  plate  has  been  washed,  it  turns  out  that  the  glass  surface  has 
not  been  evenly  rubbed,  or  that,  by  reason  of  the  inequality  of  the  plate, 
certain  portions  have  not  been  touched,  the  grinding  must  be  proceeded 
with,  a  fresh  supply  of  emery  being  obtained.  The  action  must  be  con- 
double  film  from  the  glass.  The  tray  should  be  large,  deep,  and  quite  full  of  water ;  then 
in  the  operation  of  stripping  the  film  will  be  turned  over.  Remove  the  glass  from  the  water, 
leaving  the  film  floating  topsy-turvy ;  wash  the  strips  oif  the  edges,  dip  into  clean,  warm 
water,  and  flood  with  a  thin,  warm  solution  of  gelatin.  Rest  one  end  of  the  glass  on  the 
edge  of  the  tray,  and  the  other  on  some  support  to  keep  it  level.  Now  lift  the  film  by  the 
two  nearest  corners,  and  gently  draw  it  out  of  the  water  on  to  the  glass.  It  will  easily  slip 
over  the  gelatin  without  bubbles.  Tilt  the  glass,  keeping  hold  of  the  corners  to  prevent  the 
film  slipping  off,  and  gradually  raise  it  to  let  the  surplus  gelatin  drain  off.  Any  stray 
gelatin  which  has  run  over  the  surface  can  be  removed  by  now  washing,  or  after  it  has 
dried.  The  India-rubber  solution  can  be  made  by  dissolving  thin  sheet  India-rubber  (black) 
— such  as  tobacco  pouches  are  sometimes  made  of — in  benzine  or  benzoline.  If  the  latter,  see 
that  it  be  free  from  paraffin^,  which  would  prevent  the  India-rubber  from  drying.  The  use 
of  the  coating  of  India-rubber  is  to  prevent  the  coating  of  plain  collodion  from  dissolving 
that  containing  the  negative.  A  very  thin  coating  therefore  suffices.  For  large  negatives, 
a  second  coating  of  India-rubber  and  collodion  is  advisable.  Negatives  so  reversed  have  one 
single  fault — the  film  is  easily  scratched.  Great  care  is  therefore  necessary  with  these  for 
our  work. — GEORGE  SMITH. 


PHOTOTYPES,  PLATINOTYPES,  ETC.  319 

tinned  in  order  to  reduce  the  size  of  the  grains  as  much  as  possible.  In 
this  way  two  mat  plates  are  produced  at  one  and  the  same  time.  If  it  is 
a  question  of  employing  plates  a  second  time,  these,  in  order  to  he  freed 
from  gelatin,  are  put  into  a  lead  or  zinc  vessel  containing  an  alkali  solu- 
tion formed  of  slaked  lime  or  soda.  This  alkaline  liquid  may  be  pre- 
served in  good  condition  for  more  than  two  months,  and  may,  by  the  ad- 
dition of  a  further  quantity  of  lime,  be  invigorated  when  necessary.  In 
a  bath  of  this  kind  the  hard  gelatin  film  becomes  softened  in  a  period  of 
twelve  hours,  and  the  glass  may  then  be  cleaned  with  sawdust,  or  some 
such  material,  and  washed.  The  plates  are  then  ground  with  emery 
powder  in  the  manner  just  described,  in  order  to  free  the  pores  of 
the  glass  from  any  gelatin  remaining  in  them.  Finally,  the  plates  are 
rubbed  with  a  rag,  and  rinsed  in  several  waters,  and  then  dried. 

357.  FIRST  PREPARATION  OF  THE  PLATES. — Take  twenty-five  parts  of 
white  of  egg,  forty-five  parts  of  distilled  -water,  and  eight  parts  of  solu- 
tion of  soda  water-glass,  such  as  can  be  obtained  in  commerce.  The 
white  of  egg  must  be  perfectly  free  from  the  yolk.  The  three  constitu- 
ents are  mixed  together,  beaten  to  a  froth,  and  then  allowed  to  stand. 
Next  day,  or  at  any  rate  after  an  interval  of  six  or  eight  hours,- the  clear 
portion  is  decanted  off  and  filtered  through  a  clean  cloth.  This  will  ren- 
der subsequent  filtration  through  a  paper  much  easier.  An  open  glass 
vessel,  or  glass  beaker,  is  taken,  and  a  glass  funnel  is  put  into  it,  so  that 
the  tube  of  the  latter  reaches  nearly  to  the  bottom ;  the  filter  is  then 

357.  In  the  preparation  of  the  sensitive  films,  a  first  liquid  should  be  made  as  follows : 

Albumen  (fresh  eggs), 180  grammes  (5  ozs.  6  drs.) 

Water, 150         "          (4    "   7    "   ) 

Bichromate  of  Potash, 4         "          (  1  dr.  ) 

Ammonia, 100         "          (3  ozs.  2  drs.) 

The  alkaline  bichromate,  reduced  to  powder  in  a  porcelain  or  glass  mortar  and  added  to  the 
mixture  of  water  and  ammonia,  rapidly  dissolves  in  it;  the  albumen  is  then  poured  in,  this 
last  having  previously  been  whipped  to  a  froth,  allowed  to  rest,  and  filtered  with  care.  This 
liquid  passes  quickly  through  filtering  paper.  The  mixture  may  be  used  until  exhausted,  but 
should  not  be  kept  for  too  long  a  time.  The  albumen  would  lose  its  solidity,  even  after  hav- 
ing been  strongly  coagulated  by  the  bichromate  of  potash,  under  the  action  of  the  light. — 
LEON  YIDIA.L. 
The  following  is  a  good  substratum : 

Pure  Albumen, 5  ounces. 

Bichromate  of  Ammonium, 25  grains. 

Add  the  bichromate  and  beat  all  to  a  froth,  and  let  it  stand  over  night,  and  then  neutralize 
the  acid  bichromate  with  a  few  drops  of  ammonia,  and  filter  several  times.  Apply  with  a 


320  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

fitted  with  soft  and  thick  filter-paper,  and  the  mixture  poured  in.  The 
pores  of  the  paper  are  very  speedily  stopped,  and  the  process  of  filtering 
is  suspended ;  for  this  reason  the  solution  is  poured  from  the  funnel  hack 
again  into  the  glass  vessel,  the  filter-paper  is  replaced  by  new,  and  the 
solution  again  passed  through  it.  This  operation  will  have  to  be  repeated 
several  times  before  all  the  liquid  in  the  vessel  has  gone  through  the  filter. 
When  the  liquid  has  been  once  filtered,  it  can  be  easily  submitted  -to  a 
second  operation  without  the  filter-paper  being  changed.  For  this  reason 
the  filtered  liquid  is  poured  into  another  glass  and  filtered  a  second  time. 
As  the  first  filtrate  always  contains  a  few  hairs  or  fibres,  the  liquid  that 
passes  through  first  of  all  should  always  be  poured  back  to  go  through 
the  filter  again,  and  in  this  way  a  perfectly  clean  liquid,  free  from  bubbles, 
is  obtained.  To  prepare  the  plates  a  sheet  of  glass  of  large  size  is  laid 
down  horizontally,  and  on  it  is  placed  one  of  the  mat  plates,  which  has, 
first  of  all,  been  dusted  with  a  brush.  Upon  its  surface,  and  near  the 

brush,  and  dry  by  slow  heat  or  spontaneously,  and  expose  the  glass  side  to  the  light  on  a 
black  cloth  till  a  piece  of  silvered  paper  turns  black;  then  put  in  the  dark,  for  use  when 
wanted.  Or  this  substitute  may  be  used: 

Albumen, 2  ounces. 

Silicate  of  Soda,      ..........       1  ounce. 

Gelatin,  ............     60  grains. 

Bichromate  of  Potash, 40       " 

Water, 20  ounces. 

To  the  prepared  albumen,  two  ounces,  add  five  ounces  of  water.  Now  add  five  ounces  of 
water  to  the  silicate  of  soda,  and  mix  them,  pouring  the  soda  into  the  albumen,  stirring 
slowly  all  the  time.  Now  add  the  gelatin  and  bichromate  of  potash  to  the  remaining  ten 
ounces  of  water,  and  dissolve  by  heat  in  a  water-bath,  being  careful  not  to  raise  the  heat 
above  120°.  Then  add  the  albumen  and  soda,  mixing  thoroughly.  Filter,  and  flow  the 
plates,  and  set  away  to  dry  spontaneously,  free  from  dust.  When  about  to  use,  immerse 
the  plate  in  a  dish  of  water  about  five  minutes,  then  rinse  and  dry.  Now  place  in  the 
oven  and  heat  to  100° ;  then  take  the  plate  on  the  spread  left  hand  and  coat  with  No.  2. 
— ARTOTYPER. 

The  method  of  filtering  the  albumen  by  the  Artotype  Company  is  to  tie  a  piece  of  clean 
chamois  skin  over  the  top  of  a  funnel;  after  moistening  with  pure  water,  the  albumen  is 
carefully  poured  upon  it ;  after  filtration,  the  bichromate  of  potash  is  added,  which  may  first 
be  dissolved  in  a  small  amount  of  water.  The  less  water  in  the  substratum,  the  less  liable 
to  blister  when  it  comes  to  be  printed  ;  only  enough  ammonia  is  used  to  preserve  the  albumen, 
and  need  not  be  used  when  the  solution  is  used  immediately.  A  piece  of  polished  French 
plate-glass  is  carefully  cleaned,  as  carefully  as  for  making  a  negative;  a  perfectly  clean  flat 
brush,  about  three  inches  wide,  is  dipped  in  the  solution,  the  surplus  albumen  removed  by 
drawing  once  or  twice  over  the  edge  of  the  dish.  Now  balancing  the  glass  on  the  thumb 
and  forefingers  of  the  left  hand,  draw  the  brush  containing  the  albumen  diagonally  across 


PHOTOTYPES,  PLATINOTYPES,  ETC.          321 

edge,  is  poured  some  of  the  solution  above  described,  and  this  is  spread 
over  the  plate  by  gently  inclining  it.  'Those  parts  which  are  not  wetted 
in  this  way  are  afterwards  covered  with  the  liquid  by  spreading  it  with  a 
strip  of  paper ;  but,  in  any  case,  the  liquid  must  not  be  allowed  to  flow 
quickly,  but  gently  in  a  line  downwards.  Another  vessel  is  brought  to 
one  corner  of  the  plate,  and  there  the  glass  is  quickly  turned  on  end,  so 
that  the  superfluous  matter  runs  off.  The  quick  withdrawal  of  the  liquid 
carries  away  any  air-bubbles  which  may  have  been  formed  when  the  fluid 
was  spread  with  the  paper ;  but  if  any  should  yet  remain,  a  little  more 
of  the  filtered  solution  is  applied,  and  then  again  rapidly  drained  into  the 
second  vessel.  The  plate  is  permitted  to  drain,  and  is  set  up  against  the 
wall  to  dry.  The  fluid  which  has  been  poured  off  the  plate  must  be  fil- 
tered again  before  use.  In  this  way  a  large  number  of  plates  may  be 
prepared,  and,  in  this  condition,  may  be  kept  for  six  months.  They  must 
never  be  used  immediately,  but  should  remain  a  day  or  two  before  being 
employed.  The  longer  they  are  allowed  to  remain,  the  better  they  are. 

the  plate,  commencing  at  the  upper  right-hand  corner,  then  diagonally  across  the  plate  in 
the  opposite  direction,  after  which  the  operation  is  repeated,  going  both  ways  square  across 
the  plate.  The  plate  is  next  placed  in  the  drying-oven,  which  is  kept  at  an  even  tempera- 
ture of  about  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  degrees  ;  from  twenty  to  thirty  minutes  are  re- 
quired to  dry  the  plate.  After  the  substratum  is  dry,  the  plate  is  placed  with  its  albumen 
side  down  upon  a  board  covered  over  with  black  cloth,  and  exposed  to  a  diffused  light  until 
a  piece  of  silvered  paper  placed  by  its  side  is  pretty  well  blackened,  when  the  plate  is 
removed  to  the  coating-room  and  solution  No.  2  is  applied.  To  apply  solution  No.  2,  first 
have  the  plate  warmed  to  the  temperature  of  the  drying-box,  then  holding  the  plate  with 
the  left  hand,  the  same  way  as  No.  1,  pour  upon  and  entirely  across  the  upper  end  of  the 
plate  just  enough  of  the  bichromate  solution  to  cover  the  plate,  then  slightly  tilting  it  with 
the  flat  side  of  the  little  finger  cause  the  gelatin  to  flow  evenly  the  whole  length,  then 
drawing  the  little  finger  around  the  edges  of  the  plate,  cause  the  solution  to  flow  to  the 
edges  all  around.  If  there  is  a  surplus  gathered  at  the  lower  corner,  turn  it  off  the  plate, 
and  place  the  plate  in  the  drying-oven  to  dry,  which  will  take  at  least  half  an  hour.  Solu- 
tion No.  3  consists  of  bichromate  of  ammonia,  gelatin  (same  as  in  No.  2),  chrome-alum, 
glycerin,  and  water.  It  contains  about  as  much  bichromate  as  in  the  preceding  solution. 
The  chrome-alum  is  to  harden  or  toughen  the  film,  and  the  glycerin  to  keep  it  from  becom- 
ing too  brittle ;  only  a  trace  of  glycerin  is  used.  This  solution  is  made  and  used  the  same  as 
No.  2,  only  in  coating  the  plate  the  solution  is  poured  upon  the  opposite  end,  so  as  to  equal- 
ize the  thickness  of  the  coating.  When  again  dry,  the  plate  is  placed  in  the  printing-frame 
and  printed  in  the  usual  way,  and  the  progress  of  the  printing  examined  from  the  back ;  ex- 
perience will  soon  tell  when  they  are  sufficiently  printed.  They  are  then  placed  in  running 
water  of  from  seventy  to  one  hundred  degrees  temperature,  and  left  until  all  traces  of  the 
bichromate  is  washed  out;  when,  after  being  again  dried,  they  are  wet  up  and  put  in  the 
press  and  printed  from. — "  AN  OLD  SUBSCRIBER  "  in  the  Philadelphia  Photographer. 
21 


WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 


358.  SECOND  PREPARATION. — To  coat  the  plates  with  gelatin,  they  must 
first  of  all  be  thoroughly  rinsed  with  cold  water,  hest  under  a  tap,  but 
without  the  prepared  side  being  touched.  They  are  then  dried,  and 
ready  to  be  treated  with  gelatin.  This  is  done  in  the  following  manner : 
a  box  having  a  sheet-iron  bottom,  and  a  cover  of  dark  linen  or  cloth,  is 
provided ;  inside,  three  inches  above  the  iron  bottom,  is  a  frame,  spanned 
with  linen,  exactly  the  size  of  the  interior,  and  this  is  covered  with  filter- 
paper  loosely  laid  upon  it.  This  frame  should  equalize  perfectly  the  un- 
equal temperature  of  the  iron  below,  for  under  the  box  is  fitted  a  gas  or 
spirit  flame.  Three  inches  under  the  lid  are  iron  rods  from  one  side  of 

358.  Now  make  a  second  sensitive  liquid,  that  which  forms  the  printing  film,  as  follows: 


Gelatin, 

Water, 

Fish-Glue  (true), 

Water, 

Bichromate  of  Potash,  pure,  or  of  Ammonia, 
Water,    , 


90  grammes  (  2  ozs.  7  drs.) 


720 
30 

360- 
30 

360 


(22    "    4 

(  8 

(11  ozs.  4 
(  8 

(11  ozs.  4 


FIG.  103. 


The  gelatin  is  put  to  swell  twenty-four  hours  before  operating,  as  is  also  the  fish-glue.    Then 
these  two  substances  are  dissolved  separately  in  their  water,  over  a  water-bath.     The  gelatin 

will  dissolve  at  a  temperature  of 
from  40  to  60°  C.  (104  to  140°  P.). 
As  to  the  fish-glue,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary, in  order  to  dissolve  it,  to  in- 
crease the  heat  to  the  boiling 
point,  and  even  then  a  complete 
solution  will  not  be  attained. 
These  two  solutions  are  filtered 
in  a  clean  recipient  through  a 
rather  coarse  cloth,  and  then  the 
solution  of  bichromate  is  poured 
into  the  same  filter. 

The  apparatus  contrived  by  Mr. 
Brewer  to  filter  the  gelatin  whilst 
hot  is  very  useful,  and  consists  of 
two  distinct  parts :  1.  A  glass 
funnel,  the  tube  of  which  passes 
through  a  cork.  2.  A  copper  re- 
ceiver, forming  a  jacket  for  the 
funnel,  and  holding  the  water, 
which  is  heated  by  a  gas-burner 
or  an  alcohol-lamp,  as  is  -seen  in 
the  cut  (Fig.  103).  In  case  of 
accidental  breakage,  the  glass  funnel  is  very  easily  replaced. — LEON  VIDAL. 


PHOTOTYPES,  PLATINOTYPES,  ETC. 


323 


FIG.  104. 


the  box  to  the  other,  placed  horizontally,  each  rod  being  furnished  with 
two  or* three  holes,  into  which  screws  are  fitted,  upon  the  heads  of  which 
the  glass  plates  rest.  By  turning  these  screws  so  that  the  heads  are  raised 
or  depressed,  the  plates  are  easily  brought  into  a  horizontal  position.  A 
thermometer  suitably  fitted  into  the  side  of  the  box  indicates  the  temper- 
ature. Two,  three,  or  more  glass  plates  are  laid  horizontally  upon  the 

The  drawing  below  gives  an  idea  of  the  drying-box  in  which  are  prepared  the  photo- 
typic  plates.  This  is  divided  into  two  distinct  parts :  First  the  lower  chamber,  having  a 
number  of  gas-pipes,  pierced 
with  holes,  running  through 
it  at  equal  distances  and 
forming  a  grating.  Two  or 
three  of  these  pipes  are  suffi- 
cient to  give  the  proper  heat, 
even  when  it  is  necessary  to 
raise  it  over  150°  C.  (302° 
F.)  A  stop-cock  is  attached 
to  each  pipe  so  that  it  can 
be  used  independently  of  the 
others.  This  chamber  is 
closed  by  a  door  extending 
the  full  length  to  facilitate 
the  lighting,  cleaning,  and 
repairing  of  the  tubes.  One 
or  more  openings  made  at 
the  two  ends  of  the  heating 
chamber  allow  the  air  to 
enter  that  is  necessary  for 
the  combustion  of  the  gas. 

These  openings  are  regulated  according  to  the  number  of  burners  used,  so  as  to  obtain  the 
desired  effect  without  useless  loss  of  heat.  If  gas  is  not  available,  a  current  of  steam  or 
hot-air  may  be  used.  In  the  latter  case,  for  the  gas  tubes,  a  pipe  is  substituted  leading  to  a 
stove  which  furnishes  the  heat.  This  pipe  extends  along  the  bottom  and  passes  out  by  means 
of  an  elbow.  In  the  last  two  cases  it  is  not  necessary  to  place  openings  in  the  box.  A 
metallic  division  of  strong  sheet-iron  is  placed  between  the  upper  and  the  lower  chambers; 
this  is  the  dryer  proper.  This  division  or  apartment,  which  is  hermetically  closed,  is  neces- 
sary to  prevent  the  dust,  which  would  be  carried  by  the  current  of  hot-air,  from  falling  on  the 
gelatinized  plates,  to  the  great  injury  of  their  surfaces.  Towards  the  middle  of  the  height 
of  the  upper  box  are  placed  two  longitudinal  strips,  made  of  wood,  and  nailed  against  the 
two  opposite  sides  of  the  box.  On  these  strips  rest  transversal  iron  bars  having  three  or 
four  screws,  as  is  seen  in  the  cut,  at  suitable  distances,  to  divide  the  strips  into  three  or  four 
equal  parts.  These  screws  serve  to  wedge  the  plates  which  are  placed  on  their  upper  angles, 
and  which  are  adjusted  by  means  of  a  spirit-level.  As  many  bars  are  used  as  are  necessary 
to  cover  the  entire  surface  of  the  dryer. 

Now,  everything  being  on  the  movable  platform,  commence  with  the  first  plate.     It  is 


324 


WILSON'S    PHOTOGEAPHICS. 


FIG.  105. 


screws,  the  box  is  closed,  and  the  temperature  raised  to  30°  Reaumur. 
In  the  meantime,  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  (7.5  grammes)  of  the  finest  French 
gelatin  is  taken;  five  ounces  (150  grammes)  of  distilled  water  are  poured 
upon  it,  and  the  gelatin  allowed  to  swell  for  an  hour.  After  this  the  gel- 
atin is  dissolved  upon  a  water-hath,  and  when  it  has  reached  a  high  tem- 
perature (say  70°  R,.),  fourteen  grains  (0.875  grammes)  of  bichromate  of 

covered  with  the  gelatinous  liquid,  put  back  in  its  place,  and  the  lid  instantly  closed.  The 
platfurm  is  pushed  forward  a  length,  the  second  lid  is  opened,  the  plate  receives  its  prepara- 
tion, put  back  in  its  place,  and  the  second  lid  closed,  and  so  on  with  the  rest.  When  the 
dryer  is  regularly  heated  to  35°  C.  (95°  P.),  it  requires  at  least  two  hours  for  the  complete 
desiccation  of  the  plates.  It  is  well  to  make  sure  if  the  operation  is  ended  by  opening  the 
lid  corresponding  to  the  last  preparation.  If  the  plate  in  this  part  of  the  box  is  dry,  all 
the  others  are  certainly  so,  and  the  heat  should  be  suppressed.  The  plates  should  be  allowed 
to  cool  slowly,  and  may  be  exposed  as  soon  as  cold.  In  the  summer  the  operation  in  the 
dryer  may  be  done  in  the  morning,  and  the  plates  exposed  in  the  afternoon.  The  plates  are 
allowed  to  disgorge  during  the  same  day,  and  on  the  following  morning  they  may  be  printed 
from.  The  dryer  should  be  kept  in  a  room  the  glass  of  which  is  covered  with  yellow  paper, 
or,  what  is  still  better,  with  a  pellicle  covered  with  chrysoidine  confined  between  two  sheets 

of  glass.  The  interior  of  the  dryer 
should  be  carefully  cleaned,  from  time 
to  time,  with  a  damp  sponge  to  remove 
the  dust,  and  to  render  this  operation 
easier  it  is  well  to  line  the  sides  of  the 
upper  chamber  with  zinc. 

There  is  another  kind  of  dryer  made 
by  Mr.  S.  Rogers,  described  in  the  al- 
manac of  the  British  Journal  of  Pho- 
tography for  1870.  As  Fig.  105  shows, 
a  burner,  c,  furnishes  a  current  of  hot 
air,  which  follows  the  direction  indi- 
cated by  the  arrows.  The  air  in  the 
jacket,  A  D  B7,  which  surrounds  the  tube, 
c  A/  is  heated  by  the  combustion  of  the 
burner,  c  ;  it  enters  from  above  into  the 
dryer  a  a  by  an  opening  made  in  the 
side  B  and  A7;  thence  it  passes  in,  de- 
scending over  all  the  horizontal  separa- 
tions which  are  arranged  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  receive  in  all  their  length 
a  current  of  hot  air.  Having  reached 
the  bottom  it  makes  its  exit  by  an  open- 
ing leading  directly  into  c,  and  by  in- 
creasing the  current  materially  aids  the 
combustion.  The  exterior  air  enters  the  bottom  of  the  jacket  by  a  small  opening  at  A.  The 


PHOTOTYPES,  PLATINOTYPES,  ETC.  325 

ammonium  and  ten  grains  (0.625  grammes)  of  chloride  of  calcium  are 
added ;  finally,  after  everything  has  dissolved,  an  ounce  (30  grammes)  of 
ordinary  spirits  of  wine  is  added,  and  the  mixture  filtered.  The  filtered 
solution  is  poured  upon  the  warmed  glass  plate,  and  spread  over  the  sur- 
face by  means  of  a  strip  of  paper.  Not  too  much,  nor  too  little  liquid 
must  he  applied,  hut  only  so  much  that  when  the  plate  is  inclined  only 
a  little  of  it  hetrays  a  tendency  to  run  off.  When  the  operation  has  heen 
carried  out  several  times,  the  proper  amount  to  be  applied  is  easily  guessed. 
Too  thick  a  film  does  not  last  in  printing,  as  the  scraper  abrades  the  sur- 

closet  of  the  dryer  is  furnished  at  the  bottom  with  adjusting  screws,  so  as  to  permit  the  lev- 
elling of  the  interior  separation  at  one  operation. — LEON  VIDAL. 

2. — Gelatin, 1  ounce. 

Bichromate  of  Potash, 70  grains. 

Water, 20  ounces. 

In  winter  from  10  to  20  drops  of  glycerin  may  be  used.     Soak  the  gelatin  in  10  ounces  of 
water  for  an  hour,  then  add  the  remaining  10  ounces  of  water  and  the  bichromate  of  potash. 
Heat  to  100°,  stirring  until  dissolved  ;  then  filter  several  times,  and  it  is  ready  for  coating  the 
plates.     When  warmed  to  100°,  the- plates  will  dry  in  ten  to  twenty  minutes.     Then  cool  off 
slowly,  and  they  are  ready  for 

3. — Gelatin,  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         /    '-   .         1  ounce. 

Russian  Isinglass,  ..........  f    " 

Water, .24  ounces. 

Alcohol 4      " 

Bichromate  of  Ammonium,     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .       90  to  120  grains. 

Calcined  Magnesium,      .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .       10  to    20       " 

Chrome-alum  Solution, 1  to  2  drachms. 

Dissolve  the  isinglass  in  6  ounces  of  water  by  boiling  from  one  to  two  hours,  and  the  gelatin 
in  8  ounces  of  water,  in  water-bath  at  100°,  and  add  the  alcohol  and  remaining  chemicals  to 
the  remaining  10  ounces  of  water,  except  the  chrome-alum  solution,  which  should  be  added 
last,  and  on  the  day  of  use  only.  Do  not  raise  the  heat  in  any  case  above  120°.  With  solution 
No.  3,  coat  the  plate  precisely  as  with  No.  2,  except  that  the  solution  should  flow  off  the 
opposite  corner.  Let  the  plates  stand  for  a  few  hours  after  they  are  removed  from  the  oven, 
and  then  expose  under  the  negative  to  diffused  light  the  proper  time.  The  chrome-alum 
solution  is  made  as  follows : 

Chrome-alum,  .         .         .         ...         .         .         .         .40  grains. 

Bicarbonate  of  Potash, .       20      " 

Water, 5  ounces. 

"  ARTOTYPER." 

Professor  Husnik's  method  of  making  a  substratum  on  the  glass  plate  for  the  gelatin  film 
is  an  excellent  one,  and  the  best  so  far  published ;  but  it  has  been  improved  (and  this  is  the 
method  adopted  by  the  Artotype  Company)  by  drying  the  film  at  once  in  the  oven  used  f6r 
drying  the  gelatin  film,  at  a  temperature  of  abo'ut  150°  F.;  this  enables  the  plate  to  be 
used  at  once  for  the  gelatin,  the  heat  causing  the  mixture  of  silicate  of  soda  and  albumen 
to  coagulate  in  less  than  half  an  hour  and  adhere  very  firmly  to  the  glass.  The  best  oven 


326  WILSON'S    PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

face ;  and  too  thin  a  film,  on  the  other  hand,  permits  the  fine  grains  of 
the  glass  to  appear  as  little  black  spots,  the  force  employed  in  the  press 
being  the  greater.  When  coated,  the  plates  are  put  into  the  box  and  al- 
lowed to  dry  at  a  temperature  of  35°  R.  Plates  prepared  to  this  stage 
will  keep  good  in  summer  for  the  space  of  a  week,  and  in  winter-time 
for  a  month,  becoming  better  after  keeping  a  little  while. 

for  the  purpose  (and  the  one  used  by  them)  is  made  by  simply  making  a  simple  wooden  box, 
about  thirty  inches  square  and  five  feet  high,  the  bottom  formed  by  a  closed,  fat,  hot-water 
pan,  made  of  metal,  about  four  inches  deep,  and  having  two  pipes  leading  outside,  one  for 
the  escape  of  steam  and  one  to  pour  water  into.  A  gas-  or  kerosene-stove  is  put  underneath, 
and,  if  it  has  been  carefully  levelled,  two  thicknesses  of  blotting-paper  are  put  on  top  of  the 
pan,  on  which  the  plates  are  to  be  laid.  Several  more  rows  of  glass  can  be  put  in  by  means 
of  strips  laid  across  at  intervals,  with  levelling-screws  attached.  One  side  of  the  box  is  a 
door.  The  drawing  will  give  something  of  an  idea.  The  albumen  and  silicate  solution 

should  be  carefully  spread  over  the  cleaned  surface  of  the 
plate  (in  a  room  absolutely  free  from  dust),  the  excess  al- 
lowed to  run  off,  and  then  laid  in  the  oven  at  a  temperature 
of  140°  to  150°,  and  allowed  to  remain  about  twenty  minutes 
or  one-half  hour.  It  is  better  to  keep  these  plates  a  day 
before  using,  but  when  dried  this  way,  they  may  be  used  at 
once.  They  must  then  be  rinsed  under  a  tap  and  dried 
again,  when  they  are  ready  to  receive  the  gelatin.  The 
oven  must  be  brought  up  to  at  least  180°,  the  plates  carefully 
levelled,  and  then  the  gelatin  mixture  is  to  be  applied,  by 
pouring  on  in  the  centre  until  it  just  spreads  to  the  edges 
of  the  glass,  but  no  more;  experience  is  necessary  in  this. 
The  method  now  practised  in  Europe  is  to  pour  off  the  ex- 
cess, and  pour  on  again,  and  then  pour  off  all  but  a  little  of 
the  excess,  and  allow  to  dry.  This  avoids  any  air-bubbles, 
and  also  too  thick  films.  The  thicker  the  film,  the  coarser 
the  grain,  and  more  intense  the  blacks.  The  thin  films 
give  the  best  detail,  but  too  thin  ones  yield  flat  prints.  The  Artotype  Company  (and  so  does 
Albert)  replace  about  one-third  of  the  gelatin  with  Eussia  isinglass,  which  is  better  than 
pure  gelatin  ;  the  latter  must  be  of  the  kind  known  as  the  "Magdeburg"  a  German  make, 
which  does  not  swell  much  in  water.  The  plates  will  require  about  twenty  minutes  to  a 
half  hour  in  the  oven,  and  during  this  time  the  door  should  not  be  opened.  As  soon  as  dry, 
they  are  ready  for  exposure ;  this  must  be  learned  by  experience,  and  varies  with  the  nega- 
tive. After  exposure,  it  is  washed  thoroughly  under  a  tap  till  all  the  unreduced  chrome- 
salt  is  washed  out,  and  again  dried,  when  it  is  ready  for  the  press.  I  wish  here  to  remark, 
that  the  Kussia  isinglass  requires  to  be  boiled  two  or  three  hours,  and  then  the  insoluble 
residue  must  be  separated  from  the  solution  before  adding  to  the  gelatin.  It  is  also  unnec- 
essary to  grind  the  glass,  as  recommended  by  Professor  Husnik.  It  will  also  be  found  better 
to  dry  the  gelatin  film  at  about  200°  F.-  than  any  lower;  the  high  temperature  gives 
a  finer  grained  film.  In  order  to  produce  a  larger  number  of  impressions  from  a  plate, 
several  modes  of  hardening  (notably  with  chrome-alum)  have  been  patented,  but  it  is  not 


PHOTOTYPES,  PLATINOTYPES,  ETC. 


327 


FIG.  107. 


359.  THE  EXPOSURE. — This  may  be  estimated  at  three-quarters  of  an 
hour  in  the  shade,  in  the  case  of  a  good  negative,  or  a  quarter  of  an  hour 
in  the  sun.     Diffused  light  gives  the  best  half-tones.     After  exposure,  the 
chrome-salts,  which  have  not  been  acted  upon  by  light,  are  washed  out 
with  water,  and  the  plate  well  wiped  and  put  to  dry.     After  three  hours, 
the  plate  may  be  employed  for  printing  purposes. 

360.  PRINTING. — The  plate  is  fixed  by  means  of  plaster  of  Paris  to  a 
lithographic  stone,  and  printed  by  the  aid  of  a  lithographic  press.     The 

essential.  You  can  dispense  with  it,  and  get  along  without  infringing  on  any  patent. 
On  a  flat  marble  slab  in  the  press  plaster  is  poured,  and  a  plate  glass  of  suitable  size 
pressed  on  and  allowed  to  set;  on  this  plate  glass  the  exposed  plate  is  put  on  by  capillary 
attraction  with  water;  it  is  then  ready  to  be  inked  and  printed.  As  a  sensitizer  for  the 
gelatin,  I  prefer  the  bichromate  of  ammonia,  and  I  would  strongly  recommend  one  grain 
of  salycilic  acid  to  the  ounce  of  solution,  as  a  preventive  of  trouble  when  the  weather  is 
favorable  to  decomposition. 

To  strip  negatives  for  lichtdruck  purposes,  etc.,  the  glass  must  be  carefully  cleaned  and 
polished  with  soapstone  powder,  or,  still  better,  with  a  five-grain  solution  of  pure  wax  in 
pure  benzole.  Polish  with  a  Canton-flannel  rag.  After  the  negative  is  thoroughly  washed, 
put  it  in  a  dish  of  clean  water  and  soak  a  sheet  of  fine  gelatin  such  as  the  dealers  sell 
for  printing  borders  for  car- 
bon prints,  until  it  lays 
flat,  but  no  longer ;  press  on 
the  negative  under  water, 
squeeze  out  the  water  and 
air-bubbles  with  a  rubber 
squeegee,  and  lay  it  flat, 
face  up,  to  dry  in  a  place 
free  from  dust;  when  dry,  it 
comes  off  the  glass,  taking 
thecollodion  film  with  it. — 
D.  BACHRACH,  JR. 

359.  After  exposure,  the 
sensitized  plate  is  removed 
from  the  frame  and  placed 
at  once  to  disgorge  in  a 
grooved    tank   filled   with 
water,  which  is  renewed, 
if  possible,  by  a  continuous 

current.  The  annexed  figure  will  explain  the  kind  generally  used  in  France  and  Germany. — 
LEON  VIDAL. 

360.  THE  PRINTING. — The  most  delicate  work  in  the  application  of  the  process  for  impres- 
sions made  with  fatty  ink  consists  in  printing  from  the  plate  when  it  is  in  a  perfect  condition 
to  receive  the  ink  in  the  exact  proportions  necessary  to  give  the  identical  value  of  the 
negative.     A  good  lithographer  will  soon  become  familiar  with  this  operation,  and  he  will 


328  WILSON'S   PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

plate  is  moistened  and  treated  with  two  different  inks  or  colors,  one  thick 
one  to  blacken  the  plate,  and  one  having  a  brownish  tone,  which  gives 
the  half-tones.  After  every  printing,  the  plate  is  again  wetted  and  wiped 
with  a  rag,  when  the  inking  is  proceeded  with  once  more.  If  the  plate 
gives  but  little  half-tone  in  the  shadows,  a  blind  proof  is  taken  off,  which 
takes  off  the  last  remnant  of  the  color,  and  then  the  plate  is  wiped  once 
more  and  printed.  A  plate  of  this  kind  should  furnish  six  hundred  prints 
or  more.  The  permanency  of  the  plates  depends  upon  due  attention 
being  given  to  their  preparation,  upon  having  gelatin  that  swells  but  little, 
and  employing  little  force  in  printing.  Some  operators  replace  a  portion 
of  the  gelatin  with  isinglass.  This  substance  is  to  be  obtained,  as  a  rule, 
only  of  inferior  quality,  and  is  very  dear;  the  bleached  material  is  per- 
fectly valueless,  and  the  only  quality  to  be  recommended  is  the  Russian. 

meet  with  success  if  he  possesses  taste  and  knows  what  a  good  print  is.  In  order  to  guide 
the  printer,  it  is  well  to  place  before  him  a  good  print,  made  with  chloride  of  silver  on 
albumen,  from  the  negative  which  has  impressioned  the  gelatin  film.  He  will  there  find  all 
the  value  of  the  negative,  and  it  will  be  easy  for  him  to  know  if  he  is  to  use  more  or  less  ink, 
in  order  that  his  print  should  resemble,  as  much  as  possible,  the  one  made  with  the  silver 
salt.  This  is  a  question  of  care  and  taste  rather  than  of  skill.  If  the  time  of  exposure  to 
the  light  has  been  suitable,  the  printing  will  necessarily  be  good.  It  is  important  to  note 
that  it  is  very  difficult  to  obtain,  in  the  blacks,  the  transparencies  that  exist  in  the  albumen 
print.  The  fatty  ink  when  dry  is  mat,  and  it  is  only  by  passing  a  varnish  on  the  surface 
that  it  is  possible  to  preserve  the  transparency  of  the  strong  shades.  The  character  of  the 
cliche  used  naturally  plays  a  very  important  part  in  view  of  the  result  to  be  obtained,  and 
that  is  the  reason  that  it  is  difficult  for  the  printer  to  know  what  he  can  obtain  from  his 
plate,  if  he  does  not  have  before  him  a  print  made  from  the  cliche.  As  soon  as  the  operator 
has  obtained  a  print  which  he  thinks  to  be  as  good  as  possible,  he  should  place  it  alongside 
of  him,  as  a  type,  to  serve  as  a  comparison  with  all  the  other  prints  as  they  are  successively 
made.  By  this  means  he  will  discover  if  too  much  ink  is  used,  or  if  there  is  too  much 
hardness,  and  it  will  be  easy  for  him  to  correct  these  faults,  either  by  hardening  the  ink  on 
his  table,  or  by  adding  to  it  a  small  quantity  of  varnish  to  render  it  harder  and  more  suitable 
for  producing  the  half-tones.  If,  notwithstanding  this  last  care,  very  decided  whites  should 
show  themselves,  he  must  conclude  that  the  gelatin  is  too  moist,  that  it  has  absorbed  too 
much  water,  and  he  should  stop  the  printing  in  order  to  allow  a  portion  of  this  excess  of 
moisture  to  evaporate,  unless  the  defect  be  the  consequence  of  under-exposure  to  light, 
which  is  irremediable.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  print  be  too  black;  if  the  half-tones  are  too 
heavy,  even  with  very  hard  ink,  it  is  because  the  plate  lacks  moisture,  or  that  there  has  been 
over-exposure  to  light.  In  this  case  the  saturation  of  moisture  should  be  increased  by 
adding  to  the  water  a  very  small  quantity  of  ammonia,  or  else  a  few  grammes  of  ox-gall. 

It  is  well  understood  that  this  liquid  should  be  passed  over  the  plate  after  it  has  been 
cleaned  with  spirits  of  turpentine.  "When  it  is  desired  to  give  more  brilliancy  to  the  print, 
we  may  leave  covered  the  blacks  protected  by  the  printing  ink,  and  only  wash  the  whites. 
The  image  thus  will  offer  more  contrast,  but  this  effect  is  not  maintained.  According  to  the 


PHOTOTYPES,  PLATINOTYPES,  ETC.  329 

The  choice  of  colors  is  important.  If  a  brown  tone  is  desired,  then 
Munich  varnish  must  be  added  to  the  black  ink.  This  has  the  defect  of 
coloring  the  plate,  so  that  in  the  end  it  is  not  white,  but  brown.  This 
varnish  has  the  effect,  also,  of  tanning  the  gelatin,  and  the  prints  soon  ap- 
pear flat.  A  good  brown  mixture  is  afforded  by  the  finest  printer's  black 
of  the  thickest  kind,  mixed  with  red  oxide  of  iron  and  a  little  Casar 
varnish.  To  preserve  the  margins  perfectly  white,  the  negative  is  covered 
up  to  the  image  or  design.  On  printing,  fine  tissue-paper  is  cut  into 
bands  of  two  or  three  inches  breadth,  and  these  are  put  on  the  edges  of 
the  plate,  which  are  to  remain  clean  before  the  printing-paper  is  applied. 
Or  a  frame  may  be  employed,  the  aperture  of  which  represents  the  size 
of  the  plate,  and  over  this  is  stretched  tissue-paper  saturated  writh  paraffin, 

nature  of  the  gelatin,  and  especially  according  to  the  more  or  less  adherence  of  the  film  to 
the  rigid  support,  the  number  of  prints  obtained  from  a  plate  may  be  set  down  at  only  fifty 
or  sixty,  or  it  may  reach  from  five  hundred  to  one  thousand,  and  even  more.  The  care 
given  to  the  printing  contributes  in  a  great  measure  to  the  duration  of  the  plate.  The 
rollers  should  be  kept  scrupulously  clean  and  protected  from  dust  or  any  hard  grain  which 
would  infallibly  mark  the  gelatin  film.  The  cloths  used  in  wiping,  the  sponge,  the  water 
itself,  should  be  clean,  so  as  to  avoid  stains  and  scratches.  "When  the  printer  perceives  that 
the  print  has  a  tendency  to  fog,  it  suffices,  as  we  have  just  said,  to  make  the  gelatin  film 
absorb  a  greater  quantity  of  moisture ;  but,  before  wetting,  any  fatty  ink  that  may  have 
remained  on  its  surface  should  be  removed  by  washing  with  spirits  of  turpentine.  The 
cloths  used  for  wiping  with  the  turpentine  should  be  different,  and  kept  in  a  receptacle 
separately  from  those  used  for  wiping  with  water  or  the  glycerin  liquid.  As  much  as 
possible  fatty  essences  should  be  avoided,  so  as  not  to  encounter  too  much  trouble  in  wetting 
with  water,  which,  otherwise,  repelled  by  the  fatty  body,  wets  with  difficulty  the  surface  of 
the  film,  rendering  it  necessary  to  repeat  the  operation  several  times  to  render  it  complete. 
When  the  absorption  of  the  water  is  unequal,  we  perceive  marbled  markings  on  the  prints 
which  injure  the  image,  and  which  can  only  be  removed  by  longer  and  more  regular  wetting. 
When  this  accident  occurs,  there  often  results  a  serious  loss  of  time,  and  it  is  even  necessary 
sometimes  to  abandon,  momentarily,  the  stained  plate  to  restore  it  to  good  condition,  whilst 
another  one  is  being  printed  from.  The  different  kinds  of  paper  used,  the  more  or  less 
pressure,  and  fulling,  or  underlaying,  as  the  printers  call  it,  are  conditions  of  success  01 
failure.  It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  take  all  these  details  into  consideration. 

It  is  evident  that  a  plate  inked  in  the  sarne  manner  will  produce  different  results,  according 
as  the  paper  is  granulated  or  smooth,  laid  or  not  laid.  In  causing  the  pressure  to  vary,  the 
result  will  also  vary ;  it  should  be  regulated  so  as  to  remove  all  the  ink  from  the  plate. 
Fulling,  or  underlaying,  assists  in  obtaining  this  last  result  in  those  cases  in  which  there  are 
hollows  to  be  filled  by  the  paper.  This  fulling  is  obtained  by  placing  between  the  cylinder 
and  the  paper  to  be  printed  on,  some  sheets  of  paper  or  a  sheet  of  vulcanized  rubber.  If 
the  surface  of  the  plate  does  not  offer  any  depression,  it  is  not  necessary  that  this  fulling 
should  be  very  decided.  However,  we  advise  to  never  use  a  substance  that  is  too  hard,  such 
as  fuller's-  or  bristol-board,  in  order  to  avoid  accidents  that  frequently  occur  on  the  surface 


330  WILSON'S   PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

and  an  opening  the  size  of  the  picture  is  cut  out,  and  this  frame  of  paper, 
made  just  the  size  you  want  the  print  to  be,  is  laid  upon  the  plate  every 
time  an  impression  is  struck  off.  By  this  means  a  regular  edge  is  pre- 
served and  all  smearing  of  the  ink  upon  the  margin  is  avoided,  two 
desirable  things  which  should  never  be  neglected. 

361.  After  the  prints  come  from  the  press  they  often  need  considerable 
"  spotting  out,"  which  is  done  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  practised  with 
albumen  prints.  They  are  then  ready  for  delivery  to  your  patron,  pro- 
vided he  is  content  with  a  mat  surface  only.  If  the  desire  be  to  make 
them  resemble  albumen  prints,  so  far  as  having  a  shining  surface  is  con- 
cerned, then  they  must  be  varnished,  which  operation  certainly  adds  to 
their  cost,  and  lessens  their  liability  to  be  injured  by  moisture  more  than 

of  the  plate  when  hard  substances  are  carried  either  by  the  ink  or  the  air  in  motion.  If 
there  is  fulling,  a  portion- of  the  effect  will  be  produced  in  the  thickness  of  the  cushion, 
whilst  in  the  contrary  case  it  is  the  gelatin  film  which  receives  all  the  injury  by  a  depression 
of  the  film,  and  then  by  a  rapid  removal  of  the  surface,  if  the  coating  does  not  perfectly 
adhere  to  the  plate. — LEON  VIDAL. 

361.  VARNISHING  AND  MOUNTING  PHOTOTYPE  PRINTS  PRINTED  WITHOUT  MARGINS. — 
Phototype  prints  that  are  to  be  mounted  on  card-  or  bristol-board,  may  be  allowed  to  retain 
their  mat  appearance,  or  they  may  sometimes  be  varnished  to  give  them  more  transparency  and 
brilliancy,  and  more  often  to  assimilate  them  in  appearance  with  the  ordinary  photographic 
prints.  In  the  first  case,  it  suffices  to  trim  the  edges  of  the  prints  and  stick  them  with  paste  on 
their  final  support,  which  has  been  previously  dampened,  so  that  they  will  dry  evenly  and 
without  cockling.  When  sufficiently  dry,  the  sheets  are  passed  through  rollers  so  as  to  incor- 
porate the  print  with  the  beard,  and  to  obtain  a  polished  surface.  By  this  means  the  phototype 
print  acquires  more  solidity,  and  the  ink  is  less  liable  to  rub  off  by  friction.  It  is  a  kind  of 
fixing.  The  polishing  should  not  be  done  until  the  fatty  varnish  becomes  sufficiently  hard 
and  dry  to  resist  the  pressure  of  the  rollers.  The  prints  to  be  varnished  may  be  of  two 
kinds,  according  as  they  are  printed  on  laid  or  unlaid  paper.  If  the  paper  is  laid  or  albu- 
menized  (to  be  afterwards  coagulated),  it  may  be  varnished  at  once,  without  having  to  fear 
that  the  varnish  will  penetrate  the  paper.  But  if  the  paper  is  not  covered  with  a  protecting 
coating,  it  is  indispensable  to  gelatinize  it  before  using  the  varnish.  The  gelatinizing  is  done 
with  a  brush,  using  a  tepid  solution  of  ten  per  cent,  of  white  gelatin  in  one  hundred  grammes 
(three  ounces  two  drachms)  of  ordinary  water.  The  gelatin  is  evenly  spread  with  a  large 
flat  brush,  avoiding  air-bubbles  as  much  as  possible.  With  a  little  practice  this  operation 
is  easily  learned.  The  gelatinized  prints  are  stuck  with  thumb-pins,  two  together  and  back 
to  back,  on  strips  of  wood  edged  with  cork,  and  when  dry  are  varnished.  The  best  varnish 
to  be  used  is  that  which,  whilst  remaining  white,  is  capable  of  giving  a  hard  coating,  and 
one  difficult  to  scratch.  We  prefer  white  gum-lac  dissolved  in  methylic  alcohol  at  fifteen 
per  cent  When  the  gum-lac  is  placed  in  alcohol,  it  will  be  remarked  that  the  solution  is 
rendered  turbid  by  fatty  substances  held  in  suspension.  If,  as  indicated  by  Mr  Peltz,  pow- 
dered lime  be  added,  we  obtain  a  solution  three-fourths  of  which  are  limpid,  and  what 
remains  filters  rapidly  even  through  a  felted  cloth.  We  can  also  use  one  part  essence  of 


PHOTOTYPES,  PLATINOTYPES,  ETC. 


331 


FIG.  108. 


it  improves  their  appearance.  As  has  been  explained,  the  prints  may 
be  supplied  with  a  margin  of  white  paper,  or  they  may  be  trimmed  and 
mounted  the  same  as  photographs.  If  the  latter  operation  is  to  be  per- 
formed, then  care  must  be  taken  that  no  moisture  strikes  the  surface  of 
the  prints,  lest  they  be  soiled  and  spoiled. 

petroleum  or  benzine  for  three  parts  of  varnish.  Two  strata  are  formed :  the  first  contains  the 
fatty  matter  which  is  thus  eliminated.  It  is  well  to  separate  the  fatty  body,  otherwise  filtra- 
tion is  very  slow  and  the 
varnish  lacks  brilliancy. 
This  varnish  is  carefully 
put  on  with  a  tuft,  so  as  to 
avoid  air-bubbles,  and  as 
soon  as  the  print  is  coated  it 
is  placed  in aspecial  drying- 
box,  represented  by  Fig. 
108.  This  consists  simply 
of  a  rectangular,  sheet-iron 
box,  about  1  meter  (39£ 
inches)  in  length,  and  .25 

meter  (10  inches)  in  height.  A  gas-tube,  pierced  at  distances  of  from  6  to  8  centimeters 
(2T5_  to  3^  inches),  extends  the  whole  length  of  the  upper  portion  of  this  box,  whose  front  is 
open  at  two-thirds  of  its  height;  a  wire-cloth  separates  the  upper  third  portion  from  the 
other  two,  forming  the  interior  partition  of  the  chamber  through  which  the  grating  extends. 
The  front  partition  of  this  chamber  is  provided  with  hinges,  in  order  to  light  the  burners. 
The  plates  are  placed  in  the  lower  open  portion,  resting  on  the  bottom.  The  varnish  dries 
rapidly  and  the  wire-cloth  prevents  the  volatilized  alcohol  from  taking  fire.  With  an  ap- 
paratus of  this  kind  it  is  possible  to  varnish  very  rapidly  a  great  number  of  prints.  Nothing 
more  remains  to  be  done  than  to  trim  them  and  stick  as  usual.  Care  must  be  taken,  how- 
ever, to  avoid  destroying,  in  a  measure,  the  appearance  of  the  varnish  by  the  swelfing  of  the 
paper,  to  not  wet  it  too  much  with  the  paste,  and  especially  to  not  allow  it  to  remain  too  long 
a  time  with  the  back  covered  with  paste  before  mounting.  After  drying,  polish  as  has  been 
explained  above.  To  avoid  gelatinizing,  we  might,  after  the  prints  are  sufficiently  dry, 
pass  them  separately  over  the  surface  of  a  liquid  thus  composed : 

Water,  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .500  grammes  (16  Troy  ozs.) 

Borax, 130         "          (  4         "         1    dr.) 

"  White  Gum-Lac, 100         "          (  3         "        2    drs.) 

Carbonate  of  Soda, 6         "          (  H    "  ) 

Dissolve  the  borax  and  carbonate  of  soda  in  boiling  water,  and  add  the  white  gum-lac  by 
small  bits;  filter  with  care.  The  prints  passed  in  this  bath,  when  cold,  are  stuck  in  pairs, 
back  to  back,  on  strips  having  points  for  the  purpose,  and  when  dry  they  may  be  varnished 
with  the  aid  of  heat.  In  this  manner  there  is  nothing  on  the  surface  of  the  image  but  gum- 
lac,  without  the  interposition  of  an  organic  matter,  such  as  gelatin,  liable  to  become  soft  by 
dampness,  to  mould  and  injure  the  paper,  and  consequently  the  image  that  it  carries.  In 
winter  it  is  best  to  wet  with  the  gum-lac  in  a  rather  warm  room,  and  the  bath  itself  should  be 


332  WILSON'S   PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

362.  The  fugitiveness  of  silver  salt  prints,  such  as  have  been  considered 
in  Lessons  M  to  S  and  W,  has  compelled  a  great  deal  of  research  and 
experiment  to  find  a  process  by  which  unfading  prints  could  be  made. 
The  carbon  process  has  had  a  long  trial,  but  has  not  succeeded  in  getting 
much  of  a  foothold.  The  Woodburytype  process  is  a  most  ingenious  one, 

kept  at  an  average  temperature  of  from  15°  to  20°  C.  (59°  to  68°  F.).  It  is  also  possible  to 
stop  the  pores  of  the  paper,  which  is  to  be  varnished,  by  a  slight  parchmentizing.  To  do  this, 
prepare  a  mixture,  cold,  composed  of 

Water, 1  part. 

Sulphuric  Acid,  ...........     2  parts. 

The  sheets  are  immersed  for  a  very  few  moments  in  this  mixture,  and  then  rapidly  plunged 
into  a  great  quantity  of  cold  water.  To  completely  neutralize  the  effect  of  the  acid,  wash- 
ing may  be  finished  in  a  dish  containing  water  to  which  a  small  quantity  of  ammonia  has 
been  added.  To  avoid  cockling,  the  parchmented  paper  should  be  dried  under  pressure,  or 
by  stretching  the  sheets  upon  frames.  This  mode  of  preparing  the  paper  may  suit  in  certain 
cases  owing  to  the  diaphanous  appearance  which  it  gives  to  the  paper — very  pleasing  in 
some  kinds  of  prints.  Care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  pushing  too  far  the  action  of  the  acid. 
It  is  sufficient  to  obtain  the  effect  on  the  surface  of  the  paper.  The  varnish  will  always  re- 
main on  the  parchmented  surface,  but  it  should  be  put  on  whilst  the  image  is  stretched,  so 
that  the  heat  necessary  for  the  varnishing  should  not  cockle  the  prints  and  render  them 
unfit  for  mounting. — LEON  VIDAL. 

362.  The  instructions  for  working  the  platinotype  process  are  given  now  in  detail.  A 
general  description  of  the  process  is  not  necessary.  It  is  in  brief  as  follows  :  The  sensitized 
paper,  containing  only  salts  of  iron  and  platinum,  is  exposed  under  a  negative  or  in  the  solar 
camera  in  the  usual  manner;  it  is  then  floated  for  two  or  three  seconds  on  a  hot  solution 
of  oxalate  of  potash;  after  this  it  is  washed  in  a  weak  solution  of  acid,  and  finally  in  water. 

SENSITIZING. — This  operation  is  a  very  important  one,  and  upon  it  the  success  of  the 
printing  mostly  depends.  Failures  are  in  most  cases  referable  to  errors  in  sensitizing.  Sen- 
sitizing should  be  conducted  in  a  room  lighted  by  a  yellow  or  very  feeble  white  light,  or  by 
gas.  For  contact  printing  the  sensitizer  is  made  by  dissolving  sixty  grains  of  the  platinum 
salt  in  one  ounce  of  the  iron  solution.  To  facilitate  the  solution,  stir  with  a  glass  rod  until  all 
is  dissolved.  Use  as  soon  as  made,  otherwise  decomposition  is  likely  to  occur,  especially  in 
warm  weather.  As  a  rule,  the  solution  will  keep  good  for  half  an  hour.  Sensitizing  solutions 
which  have  decomposed  give  flat  prints  with  impure  whites.  For  contact  work  on  the  smooth 
18x22  inch  paper,  a  little  less  than  two  drachms  of  the  sensitizer  is  sufficient  to  coat  a  sheet. 
The  paper  should  be  placed  face  upwards  on  the  special  glass  topped  table  and  secured  there 
by  the  side  springs.  A  little  less  than  two  drachms  of  the  sensitizer  should  be  put  on  the 
middle  of  the  sheet;  it  should  then  be  spread  over  the  surface  in  as  even  a  manner  as  possible 
by  the  special  squeegee.  For  contact  work  on  the  sized  rough  paper,  the  same  quantity  of 
the  sensitizer  may  be  employed,  but  the  coating  is  better  distributed  by  means  of  a  small  pad 
of  flannel  made  soft  by  a  tuft  of  cotton  placed  inside.  As  soon  as  sensitized,  the  paper  should 
be  hung  up  by  two  corners  until  the  moisture  has  disappeared  from  its  surface ;  this  should 
take  ten  minutes ;  it  should  then  be  made  perfectly  dry  by  warming  before  a  fire  or  stove. 
(It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  paper  be  made  thoroughly  dry.)  Sufficient  timr 


PHOTOTYPES,  PLATINOTYPES,  ETC.  333 

but  has  also  failed  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  e  very-day  printer. 
The  salts  of  platinum  have  been  tried  and  found  of  much  service,  and  so 
directions  are  given  "below  for  the  practice  of  his  method  with  platinum, 
by  Mr.  "W.  Willis,  Jr.,  the  inventor  arid  patentee. 

should  elapse  between  the  sensitizing  and  drying.  If  the  paper  be  dried  too  soon,  some  of  the 
image  will  float  off  in  the  developing  bath.  On  the  other  hand,  if  it  be  not  dried,  say  within 
twelve  minutes  after  sensitizing,  there  will  frequently  be  a  tendency  to  flatness,  and  the  image 
will  probably  be  too  much  sunk  in.  When  the  air  is  very  dry,  it  is  necessary  to  create  a 
moist  atmosphere  in  the  sensitizing  room  by  watering  the  floor  or  walls,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  paper  from  becoming  too  rapidly  surface  dry.  A  damp  cupboard  or  damping-box  may 
be  used  for  this  purpose.  For  solar  work  and  for  prints  to  be  finished  in  crayon,  ink,  water- 
color,  or  pastel,  the  sensitizer  is  made  by  dissolving  forty  grains  of  platinum  salt  in  one 
ounce  of  the  iron  solution.  Use  at  once.  Three  drachms  of  the  sensitizer  are  sufficient  to  coat 
a  25x30  inch  sheet.  The  paper  should  be  placed  on  a  plate  of  glass  and  held  in  position  by 
clips.  The  sensitizer  should  be  applied  to  the  sheet,  by  a  tuft  of  clean  cotton  wool,  in  as  even 
a  manner  as  possible.  When  the  sheet  has  been  sensitized,  it  should  be  allowed  to  become 
surface  dry  and  then  be  perfectly  dried  before  a  fire  or  stove  or  in  a  hot  drying  cupboard. 
For  solar  work  five  to  eight  minutes  are  sufficient  for  drying.  To  prevent  streaks  and  stains, 
the  flannel  should  be  removed  from  the  squeegee  as  soon  as  sensitizing  is  completed,  and 
washed  in  the  clearing  solution  and  then  in  water;  flannel  pads  must  be  treated  in  like 
manner ;  tufts  of  cotton  employed  for  solar  work  should  be  discarded  and  fresh  ones  taken 
every  fifteen  minutes;  sensitizing  tables  must  be  kept  perfectly  clean. 

EXPOSURE. — The  correct  exposure  is  ascertained  by  inspection  of  the  paper  in  a  very  weak 
light  in  the  usual  manner.  As  a  general  rule,  the  exposure  is  complete  when  the  detail  in  the 
high-lights  becomes  faintly  visible.  As  soon  as  exposed,  the  print  should  be  placed  in  a  tin 
can  containing  a  little  dry  chloride  of  calcium,  to  preserve  it  from  moisture  until  developed. 

DEVELOPMENT. — Development  should  be  conducted  in  a  feeble  white  light  or  gas-light. 
It  may  be  proceeded  with  immediately  after  the  print  is  'exposed,  or  more  conveniently  at 
the  end  of  the  day's  printing.  The  developer  is  made  by  dissolving  one  hundred  and  thirty 
grains  of  oxalate  of  potash  in  each  ounce  of  water.  A  large  quantity  of  this  solution  may 
be  made  up.  It  will  keep  indefinitely.  The  solution  should  be  made  faintly  acid  by  oxalic 
acid.  Contact  prints  are  developed  by  floating  the  printed  surface  for  a  few  seconds  on  this 
developing  solution,  which  is  conveniently  contained  in  a  flat-bottom  dish  of  enamelled  iron 
or  porcelain,  supported  on  an  iron  tripod.  A  Bunsen  burner,  with  rose-top  to  spread  the 
flame,  forms  the  best  means  for  supplying  the  heat;  or  a  spirit  lamp  may  be  used.  A  tem- 
perature varying  between  170°  and  180°  F.  is  the  standard  temperature  for  the  developer. 
For  prints  on  rough  paper,  it  is  better  to  stir  up  the  developer  between  each  development  to 
destroy  any  scum  which  may  form.  To  develop  large  solar  prints,  a  V-shaped  earthenware 
or  enamelled  iron  trough  should  be  used.  The  developer  should  be  heated  in  this  trough  by 
a  row  of  small  gas  jets  placed  underneath,  or  by  any  other  convenient  device.  The  print  is 
developed  by  being  slowly  and  steadily  drawn  through  the  liquid  at  the  bottom  of  the  trough; 
it  is  held  under  the  surface  of  the  liquid  by  a  heavy  glass  rod ;  this  glass  rod  revolves  as  the 
print  is  drawn  under  it. 

CLEARING  AND  WASHING. — The  developed  prints  must  be  washed  in  two  baths  of  a  weak 
solution  of  citric  acid  to  clear  them.  This  solution  is  made  by  dissolving  one  ounce  of  citric 


334  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

363.  In  some  parts  of  Europe,  and  to  a  more  limited  degree  in  America, 
pictures  known  as  "  collodion  transfers  "  (given  also  the  trade  name  of 
"  megatype  ")  have  been  introduced  with  some  success.  A  negative  is 
made  in  the  usual  way,  and  from  it  an  enlarged  collodion  positive  is  made, 
the  film  of  which  is  transferred  to  a  sheet  of  gelatinized  paper,  usually,  and 
finished  in  India-ink  or  oil-color.  Without  heing  thus  finished,  unless 
delicately  toned,  they  are  gray  and  unpleasing  in  color,  and  have  no 
quality  to  recommend  them. 

acid  in  thirty  ounces  of  water.  As  soon  as  developed,  the  prints  should  be  immersed  face 
downwards  in  the  first  bath  of  acid,  and  after  they  have  remained  in  it  for  about  ten 
minutes  they  should  be  removed  to  the  second  bath,  in  which  they  should  remain  another 
ten  minutes.  The  first  bath  may  be  used  for  two  batches  of  prints.  The  second  acid-bath 
must  always  be  fresh.  This  bath  may  be  used  again  as  the  first  bath  for  a  succeeding  batch 
of  prints.  On  no  account  should  the  prints  be  placed  in  plain  water  on  leaving  the  developer. 
After  the  prints  have  passed  through  the  two  changes  of  acid,  they  should  be  rapidly  rinsed, 
and  then  well  washed  in  two  or  three  changes  of  water  during  about  half  an  hour.  They 
are  then  finished.  The  object  of  this  washing  in  acid  and  water  is  to  remove  the  iron  salt 
with  which  the  paper  is  sensitized. 

PRECAUTIONS  AGAINST  DAMP. — To  secure  the  most  brilliant  results,  the  sensitized  paper 
before,  during,  and  after  its  exposure  to  light,  should  be  kept  as  dry  as  possible.  It  is  of  the 
first  importance  that  the  printing-frames  and  pads  be  quite  dry.  Between  the  sensitized 
paper  and  the  pads  a  thin  sheet  of  vulcanized  India-rubber  may  be  placed  with  great  ad- 
vantage. The  effect  of  damp  is  seen  in  a  want  of  vigor,  a  general  muddiness  of  tone,  and, 
where  the  sensitized  paper  has  been  exposed  to  its  influence  for  some  days,  in  the  impaired 
purity  of  the  whites.  Paper  in  a  damp  state  takes  much  longer  to  print  than  dry  paper. 

363.    The  principle  is  just  the  same  as  that  of  the  reflecting  solar  camera  without  the 
reflector  or  condenser.     A  long-focus  objective  is,  perhaps,  the  best  for  full  figures.     The 
FIG.  109.  camera-box  should  be  about   fifteen   inches 

square  and  eighteen  inches  long.  Fig.  109 
will  make  it  plainer,  v  is  a  board  fifteen 
inches  long,  to  which  the  box  is  fastened; 
A  is  the  easel,  which  slides  on  the  board  to 
or  from  the  lens,  according  to  the  size  you 
want  to  enlarge  ;  B  is  a  rod  of  wood,  or  iron 
is  better,  which  is  fastened  to  the  carrier 
inside  the  box,  into  which  you  slide  your 
negative.  You  focus  (after  your  easel  is  far 
enough  away  to  give  the  size  you  want)  by 
moving  the  negative-rack  by  means  of  the 
rod  B  to  or  from  the  lens  inside,  until  your 
image  is  sharp  on  a  glass  covered  with  white 
paper,  placed  on  a  ledge  on  the  easel ;  remove  this  glass,  and  place  your  sensitized  plate  in 
the  same  place,  and  time  about  one  minute,  or  according  to  the  density  of  your  negative  ;  of 
course,  there  must  be  no  white  light  in  the  room. — J.  H.  FOLSOM. 


PHOTOTYPES,  PLATINOTYPES,  ETC.          335 

364.  Artificial  light  may  be  used  by  those  who  have  a  magic  lantern 
at  their  service  and  not  enough  time  while  the  sun  shines  to  do  the  work. 
The  ordinary  bath  may  be  used,  though  it  is  just  as  well  to  reserve  a  bath 
for  this  use  only.  Not  that  it  is  necessary  in  order  to  improve  the  trans- 

364.  My  transfers  are  made  upon  waxed  glass  developed  with  iron,  not  toned,  and  fixed 
with  cyanide  of  potassium,  transferred  upon  albumenized  or  gelatinized  paper,  according  to 
the  results  required;  the  results  are  very  clean,  the  tone  a  warm  purple  black,  richer  and 
brighter  than  I. have  ever  got  by  a  process  which  requires  toning.  The  glass  upon  which 
the  enlargement  is  made  should  be  very  perfect,  without  bubbles  or  scratches,  waxed  in  the 
same  manner  as  for  carbon  printing  by  double  transfer,  coated  with  an  old  ripe  collodion, 
and  sensitized  in  an  old  acid  bath.  The  developer  should  be  weak  in  iron,  and  strong  in 
acid,  both  acetic  and  citric  being  used.  With  an  excess  of  acetic  acid  a  very  warm  tone 
can  be  obtained,  but  there  is  a  loss  of  brilliancy ;  with  excess  of  citric  acid  more  brilliancy 
is  obtained,  but  the  tone  is  cold  blue-black;  in  fact,  a  nice  adjustment  of  the  two  is  required 
to  give  just  the  proper  amount  of  warmth  without  sacrificing  brilliancy.  It  is  mostly 
recommended  to  fix  with  hyposulphite,  but  I  prefer  to  use  cyanide,  as  it  is  so  much  easier  to 
wash  away,  and  any  hyposulphite  remaining  in  the  print  after  transferring  will,  of  course, 
cause  fading.  Do  not  develop  fully,  as  you  will  find  the  development  go  on  while  washing. 
If  albumen  paper  is  to  be  used  for  transferring,  it  should  be  cut  to  the  size  of  the  plate, 
placed  in  a  bath  of  methylated  spirit  for  five  minutes,  laid  upon  the  still  wet  collodion 
picture,  and  squeezed  down.  When  dry,  it  will  peel.  If  gelatinized  paper  is  used,  it  must 
be  soaked  in  warm  water,  and  applied  in  the  same  manner. — GEORGE  CROTJGHTON. 

lODIZERS  FOR  TRANSFER  COLLODION. — 

1. — Iodide  of  Ammonium, 1J  grains. 

Iodide  of  Cadmium, li       " 

Bromide  of  Ammonium,          ........  f  grain. 

Bromide  of  Cadmium, I      " 

Chloride  of  Ammonium,          ........  1        " 

2. — Iodide  of  Ammonium, 2£  grains. 

Bromide  of  Ammonium,          ........  If       " 

Iodide  of  Potassium,       .........  |  grain. 

Bromide  of  Potassium,  .........  ^      " 

Chloride  of  Ammonium,          ........  J      " 

3. — Iodide  of  Ammonium,     .........       1J  grains. 

Bromide  of  Ammonium,          ........         J      (t 

Iodide  of  Cadmium, |      « 

Bromide  of  Cadmium, i      " 

Chloride  of  Ammonium, i      " 

One  ounce  of  the  collodion  should  contain  any  of  the  above  formulae.  If  the  addition  of, 
say,  to  thirty  ounces  of  iodized  collodion  of  No.  1  formula  one  drop  of  aqua  regia  be  added, 
it  will  be  found  to  answer  admirably  for  opals.  Methylated  ether  answers  all  requirements 
for  this  class  of  work,  but  it  is  much  better  to  use  alcohol  than  methylated  alcohol,  as  many 
of  the  defects  met  with  in  the  manipulation  are  mainly  due  to  the  injurious  effects  produced 
by  methylated  alcohol  in  the  nitrate  bath. 
COLLODION. — Six  grains  of  cotton  to  each  ounce  of  ether  and  alcohol  in  the  following  two 


336  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

fers,  but  is  better  for  the  other  work.  Any  good,  rather  old  collodion 
will  answer  that  will  give  line  details  and  not  too  violent  contrasts.  The 
plates  must  be  carefully  cleansed  and  prepared. 

proportions :  Two  parts  of  alcohol  and  one  part  of  ether  in  hot  weather,  and  equal  parts  in 
cold  weather. 

The  nitrate  bath  should  not  exceed  twenty-five  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water,  but  will  work 
well  down  to  fifteen  grains,  and  should  be  rather  acid  with  nitric  acid.  In  working,  the 
most  troublesome  defects  are  white  spots,  black  spots,  and  white  streaks.  The  first  are 
caused  by  the  bath  being  saturated  with  iodide,  etc.,  and  can  be  remedied  by  adding  to  the 
bath  one-third  of  its  fluid  bulk  of  plain  water,  filtering,  and  strengthening  again  to  bring  it 
to  its  proper  strength.  The  second  are  caused,  sometimes,  by  the  bath  being  too  strong  for 
the  collodion,  and  may  be  reduced.  If  that  does  not  answer,  add  a  little  plain  collodion  to 
the  collodion  in  use,  arid  should  this  fail,  try  one  drop  of  nitric  acid  to  every  twenty  ounces 
of  iodized  collodion,  adding  at  the  same  time  a  drop  or  two  more  of  nitric  acid  to  the  silver 
bath.  One  or  other  of  the  above  will  invariably  answer.  White  streaks  are,  like  the  first, 
due  to  the  same  cause,  and  will  often  appear  in  a  new  bath.  In  this  case,  add  a  little  more 
iodide  to  the  bath,  filter,  and  add  slightly  more  nitric  acid. 

DEVELOPER. — 

Pyrogallic  Acid,      .         .         . 3  grains. 

Citric  Acid,     . 6       " 

Water, 1  ounce. 

Methylated  spirits  to  requirement. 
The  above  is  for  hot  weather. 

Pyrogallic  Acid, 3  grains.  } 

Citric  Acid, 2       " 

Water,     ............       1  ounce. 

Methylated  spirits  as  required. 

This  is  for  cold  weather.  Use  Schering's  pyro.  The  best  results  have  been  obtained  by 
taking  one  ounce  of  pyro,  dissolving  it  in  boiling  water,  and  adding  the  necessary  citric  acid 
to  it,  using  this  as  a  stock  solution  in  the  same  proportions  as  above. 

Development,  although  so  simple,  is  probably  the  cause  of  many  failures  or  objectionable 
results  which  are  too  often  attributed  to  other  causes.  In  very  few  processes  can  so  great 
a  latitude  of  over-exposure  be  kept  under  during  development  as  in  this.  Take  an  ordinary 
square  block  of  wood,  nail  a  piece  of  thick  leather  at  each  corner,  and  the  block  can  be 
levelled  by  the  use  of  a  few  wooden  wedges  placed  as  wanted.  If  the  plate  exposed  be  placed 
upon  this  and  is  perfectly  level,  take  care,  in  flowing  on  the  developing  fluid,  not  to  wash 
off  the  free  silver  ;  or,  in  other  words,  to  spill  the  developer  from  off  the  plate.  The  solution 
is  left  on  the  plate,  and  if  it  has  been  properly  exposed,  the  image,  after  one  or  two  minutes, 
will  gradually  appear  if  the  negative  was  thin  and  weak.  As  soon  as  all  the  image  has  been 
perceived  faintly,  then  proceed  as  follows  :  Pour  off  all  the  developer,  and  rock  the  plate  to 
and  fro.  This  will  give  a  brilliant,  strong,  and  clean  image;  whereas,  if  the  whole  liquid 
had  been  retained,  the  resulting  effect  would  resemble  the  negative— that  is,  weak  and  flat; 
but  should  the  negative  be  one  in  every  respect  suitable  for  enlarging,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
watch  the  plate  on  the  block  and  cut  off  a  little  sooner  than  the  requisite  force  has  arrived, 
as  with  the  greatest  rapidity  of  washing  the  developing  action  goes  on  slightly  after  the 


PHOTOTYPES,   PLATINOTYPES,   ETC.  337 

365.  After  the  enlarged  positive  is  made,  it  is,  as  has  been  already 
stated,  transferred  to  paper,  or  it  may  be  some  other  substance,  such  as 
glass,  wood,  porcelain,  metal,  or  fabrics.  This  operation  is  a  very  easy 
one,  and  resembles  that  described  for  making  the  glace  prints  in  Lesson 
S.  Of  course  there  is  room  here,  too,  for  care  and  thought,  and  failures 
will  occur  until  some  experience  is  had. 

water  is  on.  Great  pains  should  be  taken  to  be  sure  that  no  trace  of  the  pyro  is  left  on  the 
surface  before  fixing,  otherwise,  the  hyposulphite  solution  is  rapidly  discolored,  and,  of  course, 
the  plates  fixed  in  a  discolored  solution  cannot  remain  so  clear  and  bright  as  in  a  perfectly 
fresh  fixing  bath. 

FIXING  SOLUTION. — Use  rather  strong  hyposulphite  of  soda.  After  fixing,  it  is  again 
very  necessary  to  wash  well,  and  it  is  advisable,  even  after  a  very  prolonged  washing,  to  take 
the  following  precaution:  In  a  weak  solution  of  permanganate  of  potash  immerse  the  plate, 
allow  it  to  remain  a  few  minutes,  and  then  wash  well  afterwards. — X.  Y.  Z. 

Any  bath  and  collodion  that  works  clear  in  the  shadows  will  do;  the  collodion  should  be 
old,  and  the  bath  quite  acid  ;  the  bath  must  be  as  weak  as  it  will  work  with  the  collodion — 
we  get  the  best  results  at  about  twenty-five  grains.  The  developer  must  be  pyro;  a  good  one 
is  as  follows : 

Water, 1  ounce. 

Pyrogallic  Acid, 5  grains. 

Citric  Acid, 3      " 

Acetic  Acid,    ...........         i  drachm. 

Alcohol  if  necessary  to  make  flow  smooth.  The  positive  should  be  timed  so  as  to  develop 
quite  slowly  ;  do  not  develop  too  far,  or  the  whites  will  not  be  clear.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
wash  after  developing;  place  in  hypo  and  let  it  fix;  but  I  wash  a  little,  so  as  to  keep  in  the 
habit,  as,  in  using  the  iron  developer,  they  must  be  washed;  after  fixing,  they  must  be  well 
washed,  but  be  careful,  or  the  film  will  loosen,  the  plate  not  being  albumenized.  To  prepare 
the  plate,  polish  with  alcohol  and  water,  then  rub  with  a  solution  of  wax,  five  grains ;  benzole, 
one  ounce ;  this  is  necessary  to  enable  you  to  strip  the  film  off  after  it  is  dry. — J.  H.  FOLSOM. 
365.  After  your  transparency  is  fixed  and  well  washed,  your  gelatinized  paper  (which,  in 
the  meantime,  has  been  soaking  in  cold  water  a  few  minutes)  is  laid  carefully  on  the 
collodion  film,  the  water  and  air  are  squeezed  out  with  a  squeegee,  not  pressing  too  hard,  the 
surplus  edge  of  paper  is  cut  off,  and  the  whole  left  to  dry,  when,  by  cutting  along  the  edge, 
a  thin  knife  may  be  inserted  tinder  the  corner,  and  the  film  stripped  from  the  glass.  To 
gelatinize  the  paper,  dissolve  by  heat  two  ounces  of  gelatin  to  a  quart  of  water  ;  keep  hot, 
and  float  the  paper  about  three  minutes  and  hang  up  to  dry,  when  it  is  ready  for  use.  Heavy 
Saxe  plain  paper  will  do,  but  there  is  a  cheaper  paper  which  is  as  good,  or  better,  for  this 
purpose,  which  you  can  get  at  any  paper  warehouse;  the  paper  must  be  gelatined  in  cold 
weather  or  in  the  evening,  or  it  will  run  ;  a  large  quantity  can  be  prepared,  as  it  will  keep. — 
J.  H.  FOLSOM. 

GELATIN  TRANSFER  PAPER. — Plain  Saxe  or  Kives  floated  on  a  solution  of  ordinary  gelatin : 

Gelatin,  ............     10  ounces. 

Water, 1  gallon. 

Chrome-Alum,          ..........         \  ounce. 

Float  a  minute  and  a  half,  and  hang  up  in  a  room  of  any  temperature  not  lower  than  65°. 
22 


338  WILSON'S   PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

366.  The  coloring  upon  the  collodion  transfer  must  be  rapidly  done, 
since  the  price  at  which  they  are  sold  in  the  market  is  extremely  low. 
They  are  usually  done  in  oil,  and  certainly  he  or  she  or  it  who  colors  them 
must  be  an  illy-paid  expert.  The  finest  results  are  obtained  by  the  use  of 
crayon  or  India-ink,  and  when  that  is  used  the  matter  is  not  so  difficult. 

This  will  keep  two  months,  or  even  for  any  length  of  time,  by  slightly  increasing  the  amount 
of  chrome-alum.  To  make  it  become  attached  to  the  plate  it  requires  simply  to  be  floated, 
face  downwards,  in  water  a  short  time  previous  to  use,  and  squeegeed  on  as  usual.  The 
glasses  for  use  can  be  cleaned  in  any  way  preferred,  and  then  dusted  on  with  talc,  and  the 
talc  polished  with  a  nice,  clean,  and  thoroughly-dry  leather.  If  the  leather  be  damp,  do  not 
expect  the  paper  to  peel  off  the  plate.  Should,  after  all  has  been  completed,  the  picture 
refuse  to  peel  off  the  glass,  add  a  few  drops  of  glacial  acetic  acid  to  some  water,  and  steep  the 
back  of  the  paper  with  this;  it  will  readily  peel  afterwards.  In  hot  weather  it  is  often  a 
good  precaution  to  add  one  or  two  drops  of  glacial  acetic  acid  to  every  pint  of  collodion  ;  this 
is  the  best  remedy  against  sticking. — X.  Y.  Z. 

I  prefer  the  "  lime"  or  oxyhydrogen  light  for  the  lime,  as  it  is  of  a  fixed  quantity;  it  soon 
pays  for  itself  in  preventing  loss  from  under-  or  over-exposure.  You  have  only  to  find  the 
right  time  once  and  then  go  on  forever,  making  only  a  little  difference  according  to  the 
density  of  the  negative;  whereas,  if  you  use  the  solar  light,  the  exposure  may  vary  from  a 
few  seconds  to  any  number  of  minutes.  I  use  the  mixed  jet  and  keep  the  gases  in  galvanized 
iron  tanks,  in  which  the  gas  never  goes  bad.  It  is  a  pleasure  to  be  able  to  make  an  enlarge- 
ment at  a  few  minutes'  notice  with  certainty — night  or  day,  of  course,  not  making  any 
difference.  About  one  minute  and  a  half's  exposure  in  the  lantern  will  be  found  sufficient, 
using  the  following  developer : 

Pyrogallic  Acid, .40  grains. 

Citric  Acid, 20       " 

Acetic  Acid, 30  minims. 

Alcohol,  ............     quant,  suff. 

Water,     .         . 10  ounces. 

One  and  a  half  ounces  will  cover  a  twelve  by  ten  plate.  As  soon  as  the  plate  is  well  covered, 
pour  off  the  excess,  and  begin  to  wash  as  soon  as  the  image  appears  as  you  would  like  to  see 
it  when  finished.  Fix  in  a  dish  of  hypo,  wash  well,  and  proceed  to  make  another  if  you 
require  it. — A.  PHILBURN. 

366.  After  the  film  is  transferred  to  the  paper,  mounted  upon  stout  card  and  rolled  well, 
shake  fine  pumice-powder,  sifted  through  two  thicknesses  of  fine  muslin,  all  over  it,  and  with 
a  light  circular  motion  rub  evenly  all  over  till  an  even  mat  surface  is  obtained  ;  wipe  off  all 
pumice-powder  with  a  clean,  soft  linen  rag.  Now  take  one  of  Kowney's  ever-pointed  pencils, 
H,  HB,  and  BB.  With  the  BB  strengthen  all  the  dark  touches — pupils  of  the  eyes,  line  of 
eyelash,  eyebrows,  hair  and  drapery,  etc. ;  with  the  H  and  HB  mend  all  the  patches  in  the  face, 
and  graduate  all  the  shadows,  working  between  the  breaks  in  the  photograph.  If  the  operator 
cannot  draw,  it  is  best  left  at  this;  if  he  can,  any  amount  of  finish  can  be  obtained — the 
whole  face  can  be  highly  stippled  with  the  pencil,  the  drapery  hatched,  and  some  bold 
hatching  over  the  shoulders  and  upon  the  background  will  greatly  add  to  the  effect ;  but  it  is 
astonishing  how  much  effect  can  be  obtained  upon  a  good,  soft  transfer  with  just  the  few  bold 
firm  touches  with  the  BB,  and  the  mending  with  the  H  and  HB  pencil.— GEORGE  OROUQHTON. 


LESSON"  Y. 

WASTES    AND    THEIR    WORTH. 

367.  So  much  of  the  precious  metals  is  used  in  photography  that  it  is 
important  to  guard  against  waste  as  much  as  possible.  This  waste  occurs 
in  two  ways :  First,  hy  attempting  to  sensitize  hoth  collodion  plates  and 
paper  without  a  knowledge  of  the  strength  of  the  solution  used,  thus 
wasting  raw  material ;  and,  secondly,  by  allowing  used  solutions  to  run 
down  the  sink,  and  by  throwing  away  scraps  of  silvered  paper  which 
could  be  burned,  the  ashes  saved,  and  the  silver  obtained  from  them  in 

367.  The  method  known  as  "  volumetric  analysis,"  applied  to  testing  silver  solutions  in 
the  usual  way,  requires  the  use  of  a  burette  graduated  into  cubic  centimetres — a  piece  of 
apparatus  easily  broken,  and  which  is  hardly  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  ordinary  dark- 
room, but,  as  the  principle  upon  which  it  depends  is  extremely  simple,  the  following  modi- 
fication of  the  process  is  offered,  which  it  is  thought  will  come  within  the  practical  working  of 
almost  every  photographic  laboratory.  Before  describing  the  method,  it  will  be  well  to  briefly 
explain  to  those  not  familiar  with  volumetric  analysis  the  principle  involved.  When  a  solution 
of  salt  (sodium  chloride)  is  added  to  a  nitrate  of  silver  solution,  chloride  of  silver  is  formed, 
which,  being  insoluble,  is  precipitated  at  the  same  time  the  sodium  nitrate  (the  other  prod- 
uct of  the  decomposition)  goes  into  solution.  Sixty  grains  of  sodium  chloride  are  required 
to  precipitate  one  hundred  and  seventy  grains  of  nitrate  of  silver.  If,  therefore,  ore  ounce 
of  water  held  in  solution  one  hundred  and  seventy  grains  of  nitrate  of  silver,  it  would  re- 
quire just  sixty  grains  of  salt  to  precipitate  all  the  silver  as  chloride;  or,  should  the  one 
ounce  of  water  contain  one-half  the  quantity  of  nitrate  of  silver  (eighty-five  grains  di-- 
solved).  then  thirty  grains  of  salt  would  be  required  to  effect  the  complete  precipitation. 
From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  quantity  of  salt  required  to  precipitate  a  silver  solution 
depends  upon  the  quantity  of  silver  dissolved  ;  and,  therefore,  to  learn  how  much  silver  is 
held  in  solution,  it  is  only  necessary  to  find  out  how  much  salt  is  required  to  completely  pre- 
cipitate it.  For  this  purpose  a  standard  solution  of  salt  is  made,  a  given  quantity  of  which 
will  represent  so  many  grains  of  nitrate  of  silver.  The  simple  process  suggested,  based 
upon  this  well-known  principle,  is  as  follows: 

First  procure  a  one-ounce  graduate,  marked  off  in  drachms;  also  one  sixteen-ounce  nar- 
row-mouth, corked  bottle,  and  one  eight-ounce  narrow-mouth,  glass-stoppered  bottle;  this  is 
all  the  apparatus  required.  Next  take  an  ounce  or  more  of  common  salt,  and  dry  it  in  a 
clean  dish  over  a  gentle  heat  for  an  hour  or  more,  until  the  little  moisture  it  contains  is 
driven  off.  When  the  salt  is  thus  well  dried  and  cool,  weigh  out  exactly  ninety  grains  on  a 
piece  of  paper,  and  pour  it  into  the  sixteen-ounce  bottle,  taking  care  not  to  spill  any  ;  then 
add  exactly  fifteen  ounces  of  water,  common  water  will  answer,  but  distilled  or  clean  rain- 

(  339) 


340  WILSON'S    PHOTOGRAPHICS. 

the  crucible.  It  is  therefore  important  that  the  photographer  should 
know  how  to  test  the  strength  of  his  solutions,  and  how  to  save  himself 
from  loss  by  wastage.  There  are  several  ways  of  coming  at  the  first,  but 
the  volumetric  method  is  the  best,  and  a  simple  means  is  given  by  a  dis- 

water  is  much  better.  Cork  the  bottle  and  shake  it  well  until  all  the  salt  is  dissolved.  Label 
the  bottle,  "Standard  salt  solution  for  testing  silver  baths.  Formula:  Ninety  grains  of 
salt;  fifteen  ounces  of  water.  Each  drachm  of  solution  represents  two  grains  of  nitrate  of 
silver."  Now,  in  order  to  make  the  test,  proceed  as  follows:  Measure  out  exactly  half  an 
ounce  of  the  silver  solution  (the  strength  of  which  you  wish  to  ascertain)  and  pour  it  into 
the  eight-ounce  bottle  ;  rinse  out  the  graduate  twice,  with  about  half  an  ounce  of  water  each 
time,  and  pour  these  washings  into  the  bottle  with  the  half  ounce  of  silver  solution.  Now  add 
a  few  drops  of  pure  nitric  acid  to  the  bottle,  in  order  to  render  it  decidedly  acid  to  litmus- 
paper.  Next  pour  into  the  graduate  exactly  one  ounce  of  the  standard  salt  solution,  and  add 
it  gradually,  a  drachm  at  a  time,  to  the  bottle  containing  the  silver  solution.  Put  the  stopper 
in,  and  shake  violently  for  a  few  moments;  the  salt  solution  will  precipitate  the  silver  as 
chloride,  and  the  shaking  will  cause  the  liquid  to  settle  clear  ;  add  another  drachm  of  salt 
solution,  and  shake  as  before  ;  go  on  doing  this  until  the  silver  solution  begins  to  look 
milky  after  the  addition  of  a  drachm  of  standard  solution,  and  does  not  settle  out  clear.  This 
is  the  critical  point,  as  nearly  all  the  silver  has  been  precipitated,  and  a  very  small  quantity 
of  the  salt  solution  will  now  effect  the  complete  precipitation.  Add  the  solution  now,  a  few 
drops  at  a  time,  shaking  well  after  each  addition  ;  and  when  the  test-liquid  in  the  bottle  no 
longer  shows  a  cloudiness  after  the  last  addition,  the  operation  is  completed.  To  ascertain 
now  the  strength  of  the  silver  bath,  it  is  only  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  how  many  drachms 
of  the  standard  solution  have  been  used  in  the  operation.  Suppose,  for  instance,  it  took  ex- 
actly seven  drachms  of  the  salt  solution  to  effect  the  complete  precipitation,  as  each  drachm 
represents  two  grains  of  nitrate  of  silver,  seven  drachms  equal  fourteen  grains  to  the  half 
ounce,  or  twenty-eight  grains  to  the  ounce.  If  the  test  is  always  made  with  half  an  ounce 
of  bath,  the  number  of  drachms  of  standard  solution  multiplied  by  four  will  give  the  num- 
ber of  grains  of  nitrate  of  silver  to  the  fluid  ounce.  Should  it  be  found,  in  another  case, 
eight  drachms  (.one  ounce)  were  not  sufficient  to  throw  down  all  the  silver  as  chloride,  then 
another  ounce  of  standard  solution  is  measured  out  and  added,  in  fractions  of  a  drachm  at  a 
time,  until  the  desired  result  is  attained.  If  in  this  case  nine  and  a  half  drachms  precipitate 
all  the  silver,  then  nine  and  a  half  multiplied  by  four  equals  thirty-eight,  or  thirty-eight 
grains  of  nitrate  of  silver  to  the  ounce  of  bath.  In  order  to  obtain  accurate  results,  two 
tests  should  be  made — the  first  will  give  an  idea  about  how  much  standard  solution  will  be 
required  for  the  operation  ;  then  the  second  test  must  be  made  with  care  at  the  end  of  the 
trial,  adding  the  salt  solution  in  portions  of  a  few  drops  only  at  a  time.  As  it  is  quite  possi- 
ble to  read  down  to  a  quarter  of  a  drachm  on  the  graduate,  the  strength  of  the  bath  may  be 
ascertained,  at  least  within  one  or  two  grains  to  the  ounce.  There  are  a  few  points  which, 
if  observed,  will  add  to  the  accuracy  of  the  results  :  1.  In  the  first  test,  add  the  salt  solution, 
half  a  drachm  at  a  time,  until  the  number  of  drachms  required  is  known.  In  the  second 
test,  the  standard  solution  may  be  added  in  greater  quantity,  until  within  a  few  drachms  of 
the  critical  point ;  after  that  is  reached  add  it  only  by  drops,  shaking  well  after  each  addi- 
tion. 2.  In  order  to  drop  the  salt  solution  neatly,  so  that  none  of  it  runs  down  under  the 
lip  of  the  graduate  (which  would  occasion  loss  and  vitiate  the  results  of  the  experiment), 


WASTES    AND    THEIK    WORTH.  341 

tinguished  chemist  in  the  note  appended.  As  to  the  saving  of  wastes, 
only  a  few  practical  hints  will  be  given,  since  your  dealer  or  chemist  will 
supply  you  in  pamphlet  form,  free,  with  much  more  elaborate  instructions 
than  comes  within  the  reach  of  this  work  to  give. 

rub  a  little  soft  wax  or  tallow  just  under  the  lip,  up  to  the  pouring  edge  ;  by  this  means  the 
liquid  may  be  dropped  without  any  danger  of  spilling.  «.3.  In  order  to  read  the  graduate 
correctly  place  it  upon  a  level  table,  and  have  the  sight  upon  a  line  with  the  markings. 
Owing  to  the  adhesion  of  the  liquid  to  the  glass,  it  rises  on  the  sides  a  little  above  the 
true  level,  and  the  readings  should  be  made  between  the  two  liquid  surfaces. — GEORGE 
BRINTON  PHILLIPS. 

To  convert  chloride  of  silver  into  a  metallic  state,  procure  a  porous  earthenware  tube,  such 
as  is  used  in  galvanic  batteries ;  make  a  zinc  cylinder  to  enter  it,  leaving  a  small  space 
around  it ;  to  the  zinc  cylinder  must  be  soldered  a  piece  of  silver  wire  ;  the  FIG.  no. 

chloride  to  be  converted  is  introduced  into  a  large  jar,  the  porous  vase  is 
made  to  stand  upon  the  surface  of  the  chloride,  and  the  silver  wire  is  bent  in 
such  a  manner  that  it  lies  at  the  bottom  of  the  jar  in  the  middle  of  the  chloride. 
The  jar  is  then  filled  with  acidulated  water,  which  passing  through  the  pores 
of  the  tube  attacks  the  zinc  and  creates  an  electric  current;  the  silver  in  a 
pure  metallic  state  deposits  itself  round  the  silver  wire.  The  jar  must  be  kept 
in  a  warm  place,  and  not  touched  until  every  atom  of  chloride  is  converted. 
A,  jar;  B,  chloride  of  silver;  c,  porous  vase;  D,  zinc  cylinder;  E,  silver  wire. 
When  terminated, -it  is  not  even  necessary  to  melt  the  product  in  a  crucible; 
it  can  be  dissolved  in  nitric  acid  and  crystallized. — E.  STEBBING. 

Almost  every  photographer  has  some  special  way  of  his  own  for  saving  silver  from  the 
developing  solution,  but  I  doubt  if  a  more  primitive  or  effectual  plan  has  ever  been  hit  upon 
than  one  adopted  by  a  photographer,  of  no  mean  reputation,  that  I  met  during  my  travels 
this  summer.  The  whole  apparatus  was  nothing  more  than  an  old  felt  hat  without  holes, 
arranged  upon  a  frame  of  four  sticks  over  the  developing  tray,  similar  to  a  funnel.  Plates 
were  developed  into  the  hat,  which,  from  the  porous  condition  of  the  felt,  allowed  all  the 
solution  to  filter  slowly  through,  but  not  before  all  of  the  silver  had  been  precipitated  by  the 
continued  action  of  the  iron.  After  a  season's  work,  the  hat  was  burned  and  the  silver  re- 
covered. Simple  as  well  as  effective  appliances  are  what  photographers  desire,  and  this  cer- 
tainly deserves  a  trial,  even  at  the  sacrifice  of  an  old  felt  hat. — J.  C.  BROWNE. 

The  greater  part  of  photographers'  residues  are  in  the  form  of  chloride  of  silver,  which 
should  be  put  dry  into  a  large  bottle,  and  a  certain  quantity  of  ordinary  ammonia  be  poured 
upon  them,  and  well  shaken  up  every  now  and  then.  The  ammonia  will  dissolve  all  the 
chloride.  When  the  ammonia  is  saturated,  decant  it,  and  even  filter  it,  and  set  it  apart. 
Pour  fresh  ammonia  upon  the  residues  until  all  the  chloride  is  dissolved  out.  It  can  easily 
be  seen  if  the  ammonia  contains  chloride  by  the  following  test :  Take  a  test-tube,  pour  a  few 
drops  into  it,  then  a  little  distilled  water;  pour  into  it  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid, 
and  a  heavy  precipitate  will  be  the  result  if  it  contains  chloride  of  silver.  When  all  the 
chloride  has  been  dissolved  out,  put  the  ammonia  into  a  large-mouth  jar  containing  plates 
of  sheet-copper.  In  a  very  short  time  the  chloride  will  be  reduced  to  a  metallic  state.  It  is 
then  put  into  a  crucible  and  melted.  It  can  now  be  converted  into  nitrate  of  silver,  which 
will  be  very  pure  and  give  excellent  results. — E.  STEBBING. 


LESSON    Z. 


METRICAL    MEASURING. 


368.  HAD  the  publication  of  this  work  been  delayed,  say  two  years 
longer,  perhaps  it  would  then  be  possible  to  ignore  the  old  systems  of 
weights  and  measures  entirely,  and  substitute  those  after  the  metrical  system 
in  their  place.  To  do  it  now,  would  have  caused  an  outcry  against  it,  and 
a  great  deal  of  inconvenience  beside.  Hence  the  old  system  has  been 
largely  adhered  to.  But  to  be  at  least  alongside  with  the  tendency  of  the 
age,  the  following  tables  have  been  carefully  prepared  to  enable  Ameri- 
can photographers  to  convert  foreign  photographic  formulae  into  such 
weights  and  measures  as  they  are  familiar  with. 


TABLE  FOR  CONVERTING  CUBIC 

CENTIMETRES  INTO  FLUID  OUNCES,  FLUID 
AND  MINIMS. 

DRACHMS, 

Cubic 
Centimetres. 
•j   

2  
3=     . 
4  — 
5—    , 
6=     . 
7  — 

0    

9=     . 
10  — 
15  — 
20=     . 

Fluid                  Fluid 
Ounces.           Drachms. 

Minims. 

.      16 
32 

Cubic                 Fluid                 Fluid 
Centimetres.         Ounces.           Drachms.          Minims. 

35=     .     .      1      .      .       1        .     .      28 
40=     .     .      1      .      .       2       .     .      49 
45=     .     .      1     .      .       4       .     .      10 
50=     .     .      1     .      .       5       .     .      31 
55=     .     .      1      .      .       6       .     .      52 
60=     .     .      2     .      .        0       .     .      14 
65=     .     .      2     .      .       1        .     .      36 
70=    .     .     2     .      .       2       .     .     56 
75  =    .     .     2     .      .       4       .     .      13 
80=     .     .      2     .      .        5       .     .      38 
85=     .     .      2     .      .       7 
90  =     .     .      3     .      .       0       .     .      20 

1 

.      49 
.       5 
.     21 
.     37 
.     54 
.     10 
.     26 
.     42 
3 
.     25 

1 

1 

1 

2 
2 

2 

4 

.     ..                   5 

25=     . 

6 

.      46 

95=     .. 

3     .      . 

1 

.     .     42 

30=     . 

.      1      .      .       0       , 

.       7 

100  =     .     . 

3     .      . 

3 

.     .       3 

1000  c.c.  =  1 

litre  =  34  fl.  oz.  nearly,  or  2^ 

r  pints. 

RULES  FOR  CONVERTING  THE  CENTIGRADE  SCALE  INTO  THE  FAHRENHEIT  SCALE. — If 
above  the  freezing  point  of  water  (32°),  degrees  x  9  -*-  5  +  32. 

If  below  the  freezing  point  and  above  zero,  32 — (degrees  X  9  -j-  5). 
If  below  zero,  — (degrees  X  9  -*-•  5). 

(342) 


METKICAL    MEASURING. 


343 


RELATION  OF  METRICAL  WEIGHTS  TO  TROY  WEIGHT. 


Equivalents 
in  Grains. 


Equivalents 
in  Grains. 


Metrical 

Weights. 

MILLIGRAMMES. 

1  =  .0154 eV 

2  =  .0308 -fa 

3  =  .0463 & 

4  =  .0617 TV 

5  =  .0771 TV 

6  =  .0926 rV 

7  =  .1080 * 

8  =  .1234 i 

9  =  .1389 \ 

CENTIGRAMMES. 

1  =  .1543 '  * 

2  =  .3086 i 

3  =  .4630 T63 

4  =  .6173 ^T 

5  =  .7717 | 

6  =  .9260 & 

7  =  1.0803 1 

8  =  1.2347 li 

9  =  1.3890  .....  lj 

10  =  1.543 1* 

20  =  3.086 3 

30  =  4.630 4* 

40  =  6.173 6 

50  =  7.717 7* 

60  =  9.260 9 

70  :  10.803 11 

80  =  12.347 12* 

90  =  13.890 14 

100  =  15.433 15* 


Metrical     Equivalents 

Weights,      in  Grains.     Drm.    Grs.       Oz. 

GRAMMES. 
1 

2 


Drm.    Grs. 


15*  =  . . 

31  =  .. 
46  =  .. 
62  =  1 
77* 


=      92* 

=     108     =     1 

=     123*  =    2 


2 

1     17* 
1 


32* 
48 
3* 


9     =     139     =     2      19 
10     :        154*  =  =    2      34* 


11  169*  = 

12  :        185    = 


49* 
5 


13     =     200     =     3      20 


14  =  216     =  3 

15  =  231     =  3 

16  :    =  246*  =  4 

17  =  262     =  4 


36 
51 


22       

18  =  277     =    4  37       

19  =  293     :        4  53       

20  =  308*  =5       8* 

30  =  462*  =7  42* 

40  :   :  617     =  10  17    =1        2      17 

50  :    :  771*  =  12  51*  =  1        4      51* 

60  :    =  926~  =  15  26    =1        7      26 

70  =  1080    =18  34   =  2        2 

80  :=  1234J  =20  34*  =  2        4      34* 

90  :=  1389~  =23        9=2        7        9 

100  =  1543*  =  25  43*  =  3        1      43* 

1000  =  1  kilogramme  =  32  oz.  Troy. 


TABLE  FOR  CONVERTING  MILLIMETRES  INTO  INCHES  AND  FRACTIONS  OF  AN  INCH. 


1  Millimetres 
2 

3  " 

4  " 
6*  » 

9* 

10*  " 

13  " 
15 


inch. 


16  Millimetres  =  f  inch. 

17  «  =f  " 
19  "  =  I  " 

21  =  I  « 

22  "  =  I  " 
23*  "  —  {-i  " 
25*  "  =  1  " 
51  "  =2  " 
76  "  =3  « 

101*  "  =  4  " 


127  Millimetres  =    5  inches. 

152  "  =    6  " 

178  "  •      =7  " 

203  "  =    8  " 

228*  lt  =    9  " 

254  u  =10  " 

279*  "  =11  " 

305  "  =12  » 


To  reduce  Millimetres  to  Centimetres,  divide  by  10. 

1  Metre  =  39.37  inches.     1  Kilometre  =  0.62137,  or  f  of  a  mile. 


LESS  OK   &. 

CONCLUDING    CONFAB. 

369.  Now,  good  fellows,  everything  must  end,  and  this  work  must  go 
the  way  of  all  things — it  must  end.  All  through  I  have  endeavored  to 
drop  myself  as  much  as  possible  and  make  the  earnest  ones  of  my  co- 
laborers  help  me  in  these  lessons  in  every  possible  way,  giving  them  a 
hand  in  educating  those  humble  enough  to  be  willing  to  learn  something. 
I  feel  entitled  to  address  you  familiarly,  because  many  of  you  who  wrill 
read  what  I  have  prepared,  have  borne  with  me  for  nearly  eighteen  years, 
and  have  learned  to  endure  and  be  good  to  me.  Again,  I  feel  a  little  free, 
because  my  labor  of  months  is  nearly  ended,  a  great  weight  is  already  slip- 
ping from  my  shoulders.  I  have  left  the  library  and  the  note-book  and 
the  shears  and  the  parlor  paste  and  the  printer  and  the  desk  and  have 
come  down  to  the  margin  of  the  murmuring,  never-resting  sea,  to  give  a 

369.  But  I  return  to  my  point,  of  cheapness.  You  do  not  think  that  it  would  be  conven- 
ient, or  even  creditable,  for  women  to  wash  the  doorsteps  or  dish  the  dinners  in  lace  gowns? 
Nay,  even  for  the  most  ladylike  occupations — reading,  or  writing,  or  playing  with  her  chil- 
dren— do  you  think  a  lace  gown,  or  even  a  lace  collar,  so  great  an  advantage  or  dignity  to 
a  woman  ?  If  you  think  of  it,  you  will  find  the  whole  value  of  lace,  as  a  possession,  depends 
on  the  fact  of  its  having  a  beauty  which  has  been  the  reward  of  industry  and  attention. 
That  the  thing  itself  is  a  prize — a  thing  which  everybody  cannot  have.  That  it  proves  by 
the  look  of  it,  the  ability  of  its  maker  ;  that  it  proves  by  the  rarity  of  it,  the  dignity  of  its 
wearer — either  that  she  has  been  so  industrious  as  to  save  money,  which  can  buy,  say,  a 
piece  of  jewelry  of  gold  tissue,  or  of  fine  lace — or  else,  that  she  is  a  noble  person,  to  whom 
her  neighbors  concede,  as  an  honor,  the  privilege  of  wearing  finer  dress  than  they.  If  they 
all  choose  to  have  lace,  too — if  it  ceases  to  be  a  prize — it  becomes,  does  it  not,  only  a  cobweb  ? 
The  real  good  of  a  piece  of  lace,  then,  you  will  find  is,  that  it  should  show,  first,  that  the  de- 
signer of  it  had  a  pretty  fancy  ;  next,  that  the  maker  of  it  had  fine  fingers  ;  lastly,  that  the 
wearer  of  it  has  worthiness,  or  dignity  enough  to  obtain  what  is  difficult  to  obtain,  and  com- 
mon sense  enough  not  to  wear  it  on  all  occasions. — JOHN  RUSKIN. 

It  is  an  uncomfortable  fact,  that  a  wide-spread  opposition  against  methods  of  education 
of  photographers  is  felt  in  the  ranks  of  those  serving  them  with  their  supplies,  and  that  this 
same  feeling  is  met  with  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  profession  itself.  Any  one  with 
enthusiasm  enough  to  show  a  desire  to  raise  higher  the  standard  of  our  art-science  is 
frowned  upon,  and  thought  to  be  more  an  enemy  than  a  friend.  Why  it  is  so,  is  one  of 
(  344  ) 


CONCLUDING   CONFAB.  345 

tired  brain  a  day  of  rest,  which  I  promised  it  when  I  began.  I  have 
brought  with  me  only  a  few  sheets  of  paper,  a  stylographic  pen,  and 
the  notes  3-6-9-,  and  when  I  make  place  for  them  my  labor  is  ended. 

Will  my  work  serve  you  a  good  purpose  ?  Will  it  help  bear  photog- 
raphy up,  and  up,  and  UP  ?  As  I  sit  here  on  the  beach,  I  see  the  wild 
waves  come  up  in  bold  platoons,  hissing  and  roaring  and  dashing  at  my 
feet,  and  burrowing  and  tearing  to  ruins  the  sandy  piles  which,  but  a 
moment  ago,  I  had  made  into  picturesque  compositions,  taking  much 
away  with  them  as  they  depart  again,  but  leaving  some  little  for  me  to 
start  a  fresh  ideal  upon.  And  as  I  sit  upon  a  spar  of  the  old  wreck 
which  lies  stranded  away  out  there  among  the  breakers  (how  bravely  it 
stands  their  continuous  shock),  I  dream  over  the  endlessness  of  the  work 
there  is  to  do,  and  a  messenger  seems  to  come  and  hail  me  like  a  com- 
panion on  a  journey  with  words  of  good  cheer.  I  am  bidden  to  remem- 
ber that  my  work  will  bear  no  iller  fate  than  the  sandy  pictures  bore. 
The  waves  of  opinion,  I  am  assured,  will  come  up  against  it,  and  batter 
it  to  pieces  and  carry  much  of  it  out  to  sea,  but  it  is  true,  some  of  it  will 
remain  to  give  pleasure  and  profit  to  less  sentimental  picture  composers 
than  I  appear  to  be  now.  Always  ?  I  ask.  And  the  answer  comes,  "  Yes ! " 
So  then,  good  fellows  again,  with  this  hope,  a  few  words  more  and  then 

those  incomprehensible  figures  that  meet  us  from  time  to  time  in  our  life  experiences,  and 
we  guess  in  vain  as  to  the  use  of  their  being.  If  it  were  not  for  a  certain  element  of 
enthusiasm  found  in  all  of  life's  concerns,  the  wheel  of  progress  would  be  blocked.  As  an 
outgrowth  of  the  enthusiastic  element  permeating  the  profession  of  photography,  a  few 
earnest  souls  have  laid  the  foundation  of  a  great  educational  institute,  and  unaided  bear  the 
expense  of  opening  up  for  those  who  are  seeking  knowledge  in  photography,  both  the  prac- 
tice and  theory,  a  place  where  it  can  be  obtained  at  small  cost.  It  certainly  holds  out  little 
inducement  for  pecuniary  gain,  and  must  be  viewed  in  the  light  of  higher  motives  ;  still,  no 
reason  exists  why  the  promoters  of  this  noble  enterprise  should  not  meet  a  fitting  reward  for 
their  labor.  The  Chicago  College  of  Photography  has  the  proud  distinction  of  being  the 
first  institution  of  the  kind  planted  in  America,  and  the  second  in  the  world.  It  promises 
rich  returns  to  those  who  are  deciding  upon  adopting  photography  for  their  life-work.  It 
offers  through  competent  instructors  a  practical  knowledge  of  the  art-science,  and  places 
the  student,  in  a  most  thorough  manner,  in  possession  of  the  best  methods  at  a  small  item  of 
cost.  It  also  serves  to  weed  out  incompetent  help,  for  those  wanting  assistants  will  find  in 
the  graduates  of  this  college  a  service  that  is  of  the  best,  the  expense  of  educating  having 
been  paid  by  the  employed,  releasing  them  of  the  expense  and  annoyance  of  experimental 
and  incompetent  help.  It  will  also  take  the  photographer  who  may  seek  the  advantage  of 
learning  the  latest  methods,  or  who  desires  to  perfect  some  special  branch,  and  for  a  small 
sum  furnish  the  required  knowledge.  The  arts,  sciences,  and  various  industries,  which  more 
and  more  are  calling  upon  photography  for  assistance,  will  find  in  the  college  a  ready  means 
of  giving  them  the  knowledge  they  desire. — GAYTON  A.  DOUGLASS. 


346  WILSON'S   PHOTOGKAPHICS. 

I  am  done.  I  have  humbly  tried,  and  earnestly,  to  instruct  you  how  to 
become  good  photographers.  After  you  have  become  such,  and  enter  the 
art  for  a  livelihood,  there  are  a  few  things  that  must  be  exercised  continu- 
ously by  you.  Do  everything  to  educate  yourself — to  keep  alongside,  at 
least — and  to  promote  the  education  of  the  fraternity.  Help  our  college 
to  grow ;  encourage  reading  and  the  study  of  the  writings  pertaining  to 
the  art ;  maintain  y our  dignity  and  standing  with  your  patrons ;  ask  good 
prices,  and  despise  all  that  is  cheap  and  bad.  A  real  good  photograph 
should  show  that  the  photographer  who  made  it  was  educated  in  all  the 
intricacies  and  technicalities  of  his  art.  It  should  tell,  moreover,  that 
his  helpers  worked  in  harmony  with  him,  and  show  in  their  work,  too, 
the  mind  of  the  controlling  head.  It  should  be  proof  positive  that  the 
model  has  had  full  justice  done  to  her  charms,  and  that  she  possessed 
good  sense  enough  to  get  and  pay  for  the  very  best  of  pictures.  I  now 
yield  the  last  words  to  three  earnest  friends  of  our  art,  and  please  to 
heed  them.  May  photography  ever  be  honored  by  us  all. 

The  relations  of  the  photographer  to  the  public',  and  vice  versa,  I  consider,  and  always 
have  considered,  to  be  purely  mutual,  from  an  artistic  standpoint  as  well  as  from  the  business 
standpoint;  and  as  we  all  have  to  live  on  and  by  what  we  do,  the  latter  standpoint  is  the  one 
a  little  stronger  appealing  to  our  consideration.  In  regard  to  the  former,  the  artistic  stand- 
point, I  take  it  as  granted  that  every  one  of  us  works  as  conscientiously  and  carefully  as  his 
abilities  will  admit  him  to  do  ;  but  regarding  the  latter,  why  do  we  hear  so  many  complain 
about — I  will  not  exactly  say  bad  business — but  of  low  prices  ?  Do  not  low  prices  in 
almost  every  locality  predominate  ?  and  is  it  a  stimulant  for  earnest  workers  in  our  vocation 
to  go  and  offer  to  the  public  continually  the  fruits  of  their  brains  and  talents  at  sham  prices? 
Where  do  you  think  this  will  lead  to?  This  leads  unavoidably  to  self-degradation.  And 
this  brings  me  to  the  very  point  in  which  I  would  say  the  relations  of  the  photographer  to 
the  public  are  misunderstood.  You  have  lost  your  self-respect,  and  the  public  mean  to  do 
with  you  as  they  please,  and  not  as  you  should  do;  for  in  your  house  and  business  your  rules 
must  stand,  and  you  must  abide  by  them,  or  you  must  bear  the  consequences — fall,  and  lose 
the  so  very  necessary  respect  of  the  community.  The  words,  "  Guard  your  dignity !  "  have 
so  often  been  printed  in  our  photographic  journals, — words  full  of  good,  very  good  advice. 
This  is  another  point  where  the  relation  of  the  photographer  to  the  public  is  seriously  implied; 
but  how  many  have  heeded  this  advice?  If  you  wish  to  be  respected,  make  the  public 
respect  you  for  everything  that  you  say,  do,  or  they  see  about  you.  Be  firm  in  what  you 
transact  with  your  patrons.  If  you  say  "  Yes,"  be  it  yes,  and  if  "  No,"  be  it  no  ;  in  short, 
have  strict  rules  for  the  transaction  of  your  business,  and  adhere  to  them  without  faltering. 
Now  if  such  rules  were  to  be  introduced  more  energetically  in  the  photographic  business, 
there  would  be  far  less  complaint  on  the  part  of  the  photographers  of  losing  the  esteem 
of  their  patrons ;  for  you  will  probably  all  admit  that  a  man  that  stands  boldly  up  for  his 
principles  stands  a  better  chance  to  gain  respect  and  confidence  with  his  patrons  than  one 
who  totters  and  trembles  for  fear  of  losing  a  dollar,  and  for  that  reason  gives  way  to  making 
all  kinds  of  concessions — H.  Roc  HER. 


INDEX. 


Accessories  and  Light,  169. 
Acidifying  the  Prints,  201. 
Aerial  Perspective,  34,  255. 
Albumen  for  Phototypes,  Filtering  the,  320. 

Loss  of,  from 'the  Paper,  223. 

Paper,  Defects  and  Dryness  of,  225. 

Paper,  Printing  on,  189. 

Process  for  Lantern-Slides,  312. 

Removing  from  the  Bath,  220. 

Substratum  for  Glass,  93. 
Alkaline  Sulphides,  Test  for,  221. 
Alum,  Treatment  of  the  Prints  with,  224. 
American  Optical  Company's  Double  Plate 
Holder,  295. 

Dry-Plate  Changing-Box,  294. 
Angle  of  Yiew  possible  with  a  Lens,  241. 
Angles,  27. 
Angular  Composition,  42. 

Examples  of,  46. 

Perspective,  27. 

Aniline  Blue  for  Pure  Whites  in  Prints,  222. 
Apparatus,  Dry-Plate  for  Landscapes,  243. 

The  Needful,  77. 
Area  or  Aperture,  88. 
Arrangement  of  Drapery,  Kaphael's,  43. 
Art  among  Photographers,  20. 

and  Art  Kules,  18. 

Hints  from  the  Artistic,  21. 

in  Printing,  226. 

Principles  applied  to  Photography, 22. 

Principles  in  Out-Door  Work,  251. 

What  is,  75. 

Artificial  Light  for  Solar  Printing,  308. 
Artist,  the  Photographer  an,  19. 
"  Artotypes,"  316. 
Atmospheric  Effect,  34. 
Attachment  for  Printing  Vignettes,  Sing- 
hi's,  230. 

Backgrounds,  170. 

Frames  for,  176. 

How  to  Make  and  Paint,  175. 
Basis  for  Phototypes,  318. 
Bath,  Boiling  down  the,  122. 

Decolorizing  the  Printing,  217. 

Fusing  the,  122. 


Bath,  Kectifying  the,  120. 

Removing  Albumen  from  the,  220. 

Testing  the  Strength  of  the,  125. 

The  Fixing,  206. 

The  Nitrate,  100. 

Troubles,  119. 

Black  and  White  Negatives,  136. 
Blistering  of  Prints,  207. 
Blue,  Aniline,for  Pure  Whites  in  Prints,  222. 
Blueness  of  the  Film,  135. 
Bold  Prints  from  Flat  Negatives,  228. 
Breadth  of  Effect,  65. 
Brilliancy  in  a  Photograph,  256. 
Brilliant  Effects,  69. 
Bromo-Gelatin  Emulsion  Work,  261. 

Advantages  of,  261. 

Alkaline  Developer  for,  281. 

Apparatus,  266-8,  294. 

Apparatus  for  Developing,  280. 

Boiling  Apparatus,  265. 

Calculations,  Table  for,  295. 

Carbutt's  Cruet  for,  284. 

Chemicals  for,  291. 

Coating  the  Plates,  271. 

Development  of,  275. 

Double  Dark-Slide  for  the,  295. 

Drying  the  Plates,  272. 

Eastman's  Lamp  for,  294. 

Exposure  of,  274. 

Ferrous-Oxalate  Developer  for,  276. 

Fogging  of,  289. 

FriTling  of,  290. 

Hints  on,  290. 

Hot- Water  Cabinet  for,  264. 

Intensifying,  286. 

Liesegang's  Developer,  285. 

Over-Exposure  of,  276. 

Plates,  Changing-Box  for,  294,  295. 

Plates,  Drying-Cupboard  for,  273. 

Practice  of,  266. 

Preparation  of,  264. 

Printing,  288. 

Pyrogallic  Acid  Developer  for,  280. 

Rapidity  of,  274. 

Reducing,  287. 

Retouching  and  Varnishing,  288. 
(347) 


348 


INDEX. 


Bromo-Gelatin  Emulsion  Work,  Spreading 
the  Gelatin,  270. 

Strengthening,  278. 

Transparencies  by  the,  292. 

Washing,  287. 

Work,  Light  for,  293. 
Burnishing  the  Prints,  236. 

Trouble  when,  237. 

Camera,  Care  of  the,  79. 

How  to  tell  a  good,  79. 

Stand,  The,  80. 

The  View,  78. 

The  Portrait,  78. 

The  Stereoscopic,  79. 

Carbutt's  Cruet  for  Pyro.  Developer,  284. 
Card-Board,  Cockling  of  the,  239. 
Cautionary  Rules  for  Vogel's  Emulsion,  300. 
Changing-Box,  American  Optical  Co.  's,  294. 
Cheapness,  344. 

Chemicals  and  Solutions,  The,  95. 
Chemistry  of  Out-Door  Formulae,  244. 
Chiaro-Oscuro,  or  Light  and  Shade,  57. 
Chloride  of  Gold,  Saving,  341. 

of  Silver,  into  a  Metallic  State,  to 

Convert,  341. 
Circles,  28,  33. 

Cleaning  and  Washing  Platinotypes,  333. 
Clouds  and  Sky,  The,  44. 

in  Out-Door  Views,  258. 

Printing  in,  209. 
Cockling  of  the  Card- Board,  239. 

of  the  Paper,  225. 

to  Mount  without,  239. 
College,  The  Photographic,  345. 
Collodion  Bromized,  97. 

Changes,  126. 

Double  Iodized,  98. 

Emulsion,  Vogel's,  298. 

for  Hot  Weather,  95. 

for  Interiors,  250. 

Intense,  98. 

Out-Door,  Water  in,  248. 

The,  95. 

Troubles,  127. 
Collodion  Transfers,  334,  338. 

Coloring,  338. 

Collodion  for,  335. 

Developer  for,  336. 

Fixing,  337. 

Gelatin  Paper  for,  337. 

lodizers  for,  335. 

Printing,  338. 

Collodionizing  the  Plate,  112. 
Color,  Good,  Printing  for  Negatives,  249. 
Composition,  Angular,  42. 

Circular,  53. 

Examples  of,  46. 

Pyramidal,  45. 


Concluding  Confab,  344. 
Contraction  and  Expansion  of  Paper,  225. 
Contrasts,  Violent,  68. 
Correctness  and  Comparison,  23. 
Cotton,  Gun-,  99. 
Cracking  of  the  Paper,  225. 
Cupboard,  Drying,  for  Emulsion,  273. 
Curtains  for  the  Studio,  159. 

and  Reflectors,  Managing,  185. 

Dark-Room,  The,  89. 

Requisites  for  the,  91. 

Ventilation,  92. 
Dark-Tent,  The,  260. 
Defective  Toning  of  Prints,  220. 
Defects  and  Dryness  of  Albumen  Paper,  225. 

in  Emulsion  Plates,  273. 

in  Negatives,  116,  146. 
Dense  Negatives,  Printing,  227. 
Developer,  The  Iron,  103. 

Miseries,  131. 

The  Iron  and  Ammonia,  141. 
DevelopingVogel's Collodion  Emulsion, 299. 
Development,  The,  113. 

Best  Rule  for  the,  130. 

of  Platinotypes,  333. 

Process  for  Solar  Work,  303. 
Diaphragm,  The,  86. 

Use  of  the,  241. 
Diminution,  26. 
Distances  of  Objects,  35. 
"  Doctoring  "  Negatives  for  Printing,  228. 
Drainings   from  Vogel's   Collodion  Emul- 
sion, 300. 

Drapery,  Raphael's  arrangement  of,  43. 
Drawing,  28. 
Drving-Box  for  Phototype  Plates,  323. 

Cupboard  for  Emulsion  Plates,  273. 

Cupboard  for  Phototype  Plates,  323. 

Oven  for  Phototype  Plates,  326. 

Room,  The,  198. 

the  Paper,  198. 

the  Prints,  208. 

Vogel's  Collodion  Emulsion,  300. 

Education  of  Photographers,  345. 
Effect,  Breadth  of,  65. 
Effects,  Brilliant,  69. 

of  Light,  180. 
Emulsion,  Defects  in,  273. 

Plates,  Drying-Cupboard  for,  273. 

Plates,  Substratum  for,  273. 

Work,  Bromo-Gelatin,  261. 
Encaustic  Paste  for  Prints,  235. 
Enlargements  and  Lantern  Slides,  301. 

Plait's  Tracing  Apparatus  for,  309. 
Enlarging  Carte  de  Visile  Negatives,  305. 
Expansion  and  Contraction  of  Paper,  225. 
Exposure  for  Phototype  Plates,  327. 


INDEX. 


349 


Exposure  for  Platinotypes,  333. 

of  Bromo-Gelatin  Plates,  274. 

of  Vogel's  Collodion  Emulsion,  299. 

Shortening,  188. 

Time  of,  187,  257. 
Eye,  Education  of  the,  23. 

of  the  Sitter,  179. 

Faces,  The  Study  of,  30. 

Fading  of  Prints,  207 

Farewell  Words  by  the  Author,  346. 

Ferrous-Oxalate  Developer,  The,  276. 

Apparatus  for,  280. 
Field  Work,  243. 

Figures  in,  257. 

Foreground  Study  in,  256. 
Figures  in  Outside  Views,  257. 
Film,  Blueness  of  the,  135. 

Weakness  of  the,  138. 
Filtering  Albumen  for  Phototypes,  320. 

Gelatin  for  Phototypes,  322. 
Finishing  and  Mounting,  234. 
Fixing,  114. 

Bath,  The,  206. 

Solution,  The,  106. 

Yogel's  Collodion  Emulsion,  299. 
Flat  Negatives,  Printing,  228. 
Flatness  and  Want  of  Contrast,  136. 
Fogging,  116. 
Form,  24. 

Formation  of  Network  on  the  Film,  137. 
Fumes,  Poisonous,  145. 
Fuming  the  Paper,  199. 
Fusing~the  Bath,  122. 

Gelatin,  Spreading  the  Emulsion,  270. 
General  Remarks  on  Printing,  213. 
Gihon's  Opaque  for  Negatives,  232 
Glace  Prints,  238. 
Glass,  Preparation  of  the,  93. 

Studio,  The,  154. 
Gold  Ton  ing-Bath,  Treatment  of  the,  220. 

Toning  Solutions,  203. 
Ground-Glass     Substitute     for     Negatives, 

Hance's,  230. 
Gun-cotton,  The,  69. 

Hance's  Ground-Glass  Substitute  for  Nega- 
tives. 230. 
Hands,  The,  73. 

Stains  on  the,  145 
Harmony,  65. 
Horizontal  Lines,  40. 
Husnik's  Process  for  Phototypes,  325. 

Intensifier,  The,  106. 

Ammonia  and  Mercury,  140. 
Bichloride  of  Mercury,  142. 
Ferrid  Cyanide,  141. 
Iron  and  Acid,  108. 


Intensifies  Perchloride  of  Iron,  140. 

Permanganate  of  Potash,  140. 

Pyrogallic  Acid,  107. 

Schlippe's  Salts,  107. 

Silver  and  Acid,  108. 
Intensifying,  114,  139. 

Vogel's  Collodion  Emulsion   Plates, 

300. 
Interior  Work,  249. 

Kaolin,  Rectifying  Printing-Bath  with,  217. 

Landscape  Apparatus,  243. 

Lenses  for,  240. 

Photography,  240. 

Views,  Formula  for,  244. 
Lantern  Slides  and  Enlargements,  301. 

Albumen,  311. 

Emulsion,  312. 

Hints  for  Making,  311. 

Rennet's  formula  for,  315. 
Leaking  of  the  Glass  Studio,  162. 
Lens  or  Objective,  The,  81. 
Lenses,  Angle  of  View  Possible  with,  241. 

Choice  of,  85. 

Forms  of,  83. 

for  Landscape  Photography,  240. 

Operating  with,  84. 
Light  and  Accessories,  169. 

and  Shade,  or  Chiaro-Oscuro,  57 

for  Bromo-Gelatin  Work,  293. 

Reflected,  182. 

Results  Produced  by,  64. 

The  Divisions  of,  63. 

The  Various  Kinds  of,  183. 
Lighting,  Rembrandt's  Style  of,  67. 
u  Lightning  "  Processes,  102. 
Linen,  Printing  on,  214. 
Lines,  23,  40. 

Horizontal,  40. 

Upright,  40. 

W^avy  or  Tortuous,  41. 
Lubricating  the  Prints,  236. 
Lubricator  for  the  Prints,  236. 

Magic  Lantern  Slides,  How  to  Make,  310. 
Managing  the  Model,  183. 
Manipulations,  The,  112. 
Manipulatory  Miseries,  116. 
Marbled  Appearance  of  the  Paper,  219. 

Red  Lines  on  Prints,  219. 
Mealiness  in  Prints,  223. 
Measles  or  Mottles  on  Prints,  218. 
Measurement,  24. 
Measuring  Metrical,  342. 
Medallion  Printing,  231. 
"Megatypes,"334. 
Metallic  Spots  in  Prints,  223. 
Metrical  Measuring,  342. 


350 


INDEX. 


Model,  Study  the,  38. 

Mottled  Appearance  of  the  Prints,  221. 

Mounting  and  Finishing,  234. 

on  Toned  Card-Board,  235. 

Paste,  234. 

without  Cockling,  289. 

Nature,  Study,  18,  24. 

Negative,  A  Generally  Wretched,  133. 

Retouching  the,  115,  147. 
Negatives,  Black  and  White,  136. 

Defects  in,  116. 

"  Doctoring  "  for  Printing,  228. 

for  Solar  Printing,  301. 

Preserving  of,  232. 

Printing  Dense,  228. 

Printing  Weak,  227. 

Eemoving  Stains  from,  233. 
Network,  Formation  on  the  Film  of,  137. 

Object  Teaching,  26. 
Objective  or  Lens,  The,  81. 
Objects,  Distances  of,  35. 
Oily  Lines  in  Negatives,  132. 
Opaque  for  Negatives,  Gihon's,  232. 

Lines  in  Negatives,  129. 
Outside  Photography,  240. 

Chemistry  of,  244. 

Work,  Art  Principles  in,  251. 

Work,  Clouds  in,  258. 

Work,  Development  of,  245. 

Work.  Exposure,  257. 

Work,  Formula  for,  248. 

Work,  Keeping  Plates  for,  246. 

Work,  Lighting,  356. 

Work,  Study,  251. 

Work,  Tent  for,  246. 
Over-Exposure  of  Bromo-GelatinPlates, 276. 

Paper,  Cockling  of  the,  225. 

Drying  the,  198, 

Expansion  and  Contraction  of,  225. 

Exposure  of  the,  200. 

Fuming  the,  199. 

Keeping  White  the,  223. 

Marbled  Appearance  of  the,  219. 

Sensitizing  the,  195. 

Woolliness  of  the,  225. 
Paste  for  Mounting,  234. 
Patches  and  Stains  on  Prints,  Yellow,  222. 
Permanganate  of  Potash  as  a  Rectifier,  120. 
Perplexities,  Printing,  217. 
Perspective,  24. 

Aerial,  34. 

Angular,  27. 

Violent,  26. 
Photographer  and  Artist,  The,  19. 

at  Work,  The,  21. 


Photography,  Landscape,  240. 

Keeping  Plates  for  Outside,  246. 

Outside,  240. 

Outside-Tent  for,  246. 
Phototypes,  Basis  for,  318. 

Drying-Box  for  the  Plates  for,  323. 

Drying-Cupboard  for  Plates  for,  324. 

Drying-Oven  for  Plates  for,  326 

Exposure  of  the  Negatives  for,  327. 

Filtering  the  Albumen  for,  320. 

Filtering  the  Gelatin  for,  322. 

First  Preparation  of  the  Plates  for  ,319. 

Husnik's  Substratum  for  the  Plates 
for,  325. 

Inking  the  Films  for  Printing,  329. 

Platinotypes,  and    Collodion    Trans- 
fers, 316. 

Printing,  327. 

Second  Preparation  of  Plates  for,  321. 

Spotting  Out,  330. 

Substratum  for,  319. 

Varnish  for,  331. 

Varnishing  and  Mounting,  330. 

Varnishing,  Apparatus  for,  331. 

WashingApparatus  for  Plates  for. 327. 
Pinholes,  133. 

Plain  Paper,  Printing  on,  211. 
Plates,  Coating  the  Bromo-Gelatin  Emul- 
sion, 271. 

Drying    the    Bromo-Gelatin    Emul- 
sion, 272. 
Platinotypes,  Sensitizing  the  Paper  for,  332. 

Cleaning  and  Washing,  333. 

Development  of,  333. 

Exposure  of  the  Paper,  333. 

Precautions  against  Damp,  334. 
Poisons,  144. 

Porcelain,  Printing  on,  215. 
Posing,  Suggestions  about,  55. 

the  Model,  178. 

Pouring  of  Vogel's  Collodion  Emulsion,  299. 
Practice  of   the    Bromo-Gelatin    Emulsion 

Process,  266. 

Precautions  in  Platinotype  Work,  334. 
Preparation    of    Bromo-Gelatin    Emulsion. 

264. 

Preparation    of    Vogel's    Collodion    Emul- 
sion, 298. 

Preserving  Negatives,  232. 
Printing,  Art  in,  226. 

Bromo-Gelatin  Plates,  288. 

by  the  Solar  Camera,  301. 

Dense  Negatives,  228. 

Development  Process  of,  302. 

Fast  or  Slow,  227 

Flat  Negatives,  228. 

General  Remarks  on,  213. 

Medallions,  231. 


INDEX. 


351 


Printing  on  Albumen  Paper,  189. 

on  Linen,  214. 

on  Plain  Paper,  211. 

on  Porcelain,  215. 

on  Silk,  214. 

on  Various  Surfaces,  214. 

on  Wood,  214. 

Perplexities,  217. 

Phototypes,  327. 

Stereoscopic  Views,  209. 

Temperature  in,  223. 

Vignettes,  230.  ' 

Weak  Negatives,  227. 
Printing-Bath,  The,  192. 

Decolorizing  the,  217. 

Strengthening  the,  194. 
Printing-Room,  The,  189. 
Prints,  Acidifying  the,  201. 

Blistering  of  the,  207,  224. 

Burnishing  the,  236. 

Defectively  Toned,  220. 

Drying  the,  208. 
Encaustic  Paste  for,  235. 
Fading  of  the,  207. 
Fixing,  206. 
Glace;  238. 

Imperfect  Washing  of  the,  224. 
Lubricating,  236. 
Mealiness  in,  223. 
Measled  or  Mottled,  218. 
Metallic  Spots  in,  223. 
Mottled  Appearance  of  the,  221. 
Refuse  to  Tone,  223. 
"Spotting  »  the,  235. 
Toning  the,  202. 
Touching  Out,  235. 
Treatment  with  Alum  of  the,  224. 
Trimming,  238. 

Warm-Water  Washing  of,  221. 
Washing  in  "  Lead- Water,"  200. 
Washing  the,  201. 
Wash-Room  for  the,  208. 
With  Red  Marbled  Lines,  219. 
With  Red  Patches,  220. 
Yellowness  of  the,  221. 
Production  of  Pictures,  Rules  Governing,  20. 


Productions  of  Photography,  The,  20. 
Public,  Relation  of  the  Photographi 
the,  345. 


lotographer   to 


Pure  Whites  in  Prints,  222. 
Purpose,  Have  a,  71. 
Pyramidal  Composition,  45. 
Pyrogallic  Acid   Developer  for   Emulsion 
Plates,  280. 

Quick-Acting  Processes,  106. 

Rapidity  of  Bromo-Gelatin  Plates,  274. 
Red  Patches  on  Prints,  220. 


Reducing  Process  for  Solar  Negatives,  306. 

Reflected  Light,  182. 

Reinforcing  the  Negatives,  108. 

Relation  of  Photographer  to  the  Public,  345. 

Relief,  65. 

Rembrandt's  Style  of  Lighting,  67. 

Removing  Stains  from  Negatives,  233. 

Retouching  Bromo-Gelatin  Plates,  288. 

Process,  Solar  Negative,  306. 

the  Negatives,  115,  147. 
Reversing  the  Negative,  Apparatus  for,  316. 

Method  of,  316. 
Robinson's  Print  Trimmer,  238. 

Screens  and  Curtains,  181. 

Second  Preparation  of  Phototype  Plates, 321. 

Selection  of  Views,  254. 

Sensitizer,  The,  100. 

Sensitizing  Paper  for  Platinotypes,  332. 

the  Paper,  195. 

the  Plate,  112. 

Shortening  the  Exposure,  188. 
Silk,  Printing  on,  214. 
Silver  Bath,  The,  100. 

Chloride,  to  Convert,  into  a  Metallic 
State,  341. 

Iodide,  To  make,  100. 

Saving,  Method  of,  341. 

Solutions,  Volumetric  Test  of,  339. 
Singhi's   Attachment    for    Printing    Vig- 
nettes, 230. 

Sky  and  Clouds,  The,  44. 
Softness  in  Lighting,  70. 
Solar  Camera  Printing,  301. 

By  Artificial  Light,  307. 

Camera  Printing,  Development  Pro- 
cess for,  303. 

Camera  Printing,  Negatives  for,  301. 

Camera  Printing  Negatives,  retouch- 
ing, 301. 

Camera  Printing,  Paper  for,  302. 

Negatives,  Preparing,  306. 

Negative  Reducing  Process,  306. 

Printing  Dodge,  307. 

Printing  Process,  Libby's,  307. 

Retouching  Process,  306. 
Spotting  Out  Phototype  Prints,  330. 
"Spotting"  the  Prints,  235. 
Stains  from  Negatives,  Removing,  233. 

on  the  Hands,  145. 
Stereoscopic  Views,  Printing,  209. 

Negatives,  Preparing,  209. 
"Stop,"  Use  of  the,  241. 
Streaks  and  Stains  in  Negatives,  128. 
Strengthening  Gelatin  Emulsion  Plates,  278. 

the  Printing-Bath,  194. 
Studio,  The  Glass,  154. 

Construction  of  the,  155. 

Curtains,  159. 


352 


INDEX. 


Studio,  How  to  Build  a,  163. 

Interior,  160. 

Leaking  of  the  Glass,  162. 

with  Curved  Light,  157. 

Working  Plans  for  Construction,  164. 
Study,  72. 

for  Outside  Work,  251. 

Nature,  18,  24. 
Subject,  Choice  of,  252. 

Treatment  of,  17. 

Substitute,  Hance's  Ground-Glass  for  Neg- 
atives, 230. 
Substratum  for  Emulsion  Plates,  273. 

for  Phototype  Plates,  319. 
Success,  Work  for,  62. 

Table     for     Converting     Centigrade     into 
Fahrenheit,  342. 

for    Converting    Cubic   Centimetres 
into  Ounces,  etc.,  342 

for  Converting  Metrical  to  Troy,  343. 

Millimetres  into  Inches,  etc.,  343. 
Tanks,  The,  90. 
Temperature  in  Printing,  223. 
Tent,  The  Dark,  260. 

Cloth  for  the  Dark,  260. 
Testing  of  Silver  Solutions, Volumetric,  339. 
Think,  35. 

Tone,  Prints  Kefuse  to,  223. 
Toned  Card-Board,  Mounting  on,  235. 
Toning  the  Prints,  202. 

Bath,  Treatment  of  the  Gold,  220. 

Defective,  220. 

Solutions,  203. 
Tortuous  Lines,  41. 
Touching  out  Prints,  235. 
Tracing     Apparatus     for     Enlargements, 

Platt's,  309. 

Training  for  Photographers,  20. 
Transfers,  Collodion,  lodizers  for,  335. 

Collodion  for,  335. 

Coloring,  338. 

Developer  for,  336. 

Fixing,  337. 

Gelatin  Paper  for,  337. 

Printing,  338. 
Transparencies,  Bromo-Gelatin,  292. 

for  the  Magic  Lantern,  To  make,  310. 
Transparent  Marks  in  Negatives,  132. 
Treatment  of  the  Subject,  19. 
Trimmer  for  the  Prints,  Robinson's,  238. 

Upright  Lines,  40. 

Use  of  the  Diaphragm,  241. 


Varnish  for  Phototypes,  331. 
Varnishes  and  Varnishing,  110. 
Varnishing,  114,  142. 

and  Mounting  Phototypes,  330. 

Apparatus  for  Phototypes,  331. 
Ventilation  of  the  Dark-Room,  92. 
Views  of  Interiors,  249. 

Aerial  Perspective  in  Taking,  255. 

Collodion  for,  250. 

Exposure  for,  257. 

Figures  in,  257. 

Light  for,  256. 

Selection  of,  254. 
Vignette  Printing,  230. 

Paper,  Waymouth's,  230. 

Printing  Attachment,  Singhi's,  230. 
Violent  Perspective,  26. 
Vogel's  Collodion  Emulsion,  Fixing,  299. 

Cautionary  Rules,  300. 

Collodion  Emulsion  Work,  Prepara- 
tion of  the  Plates,  298. 

Developing,  299. 

Drainings,  300. 

Drying,  300. 

Exposure  of,  299. 

Intensifying,  300. 

Pouring  on  of,  298. 

Varnishing  the  Plate,  300. 
Volumetric  Method  of  Testing  Silver  Sola 
tions,  339. 

Warm  Water  for  Washing  Prints,  221. 
Washing  Apparatus  for  Phototypes,  327. 

and  Cleaning  Platinotypes,  333. 

Bromo-Gelatin  Plates,  287. 

of  the  Prints,  Imperfect,  224. 

the  Prints,  201. 

Wash-Boom  for  the  Prints.  208. 
Wastes  and  their  Worth,  339. 
Water  in  Collodion  for  Keeping  Plates,  248. 
Wavy  Lines,  41. 

Waymouth's  Vignette  Papers,  Use  of,  230. 
Weak  Negatives,  Printing,  227. 
Weakness  of  the  Film,  138. 
Weights,  Relation  of  Metrical  to  Troy,  343. 
White,  Keeping  the  Paper,  223. 
Wilson's,  George  Washington,  Formulae  for 

Outside  Work,  246,  250. 
Wood,  Printing  on,  214. 
Woolliness  of  the  Paper  Surface,  225. 

Yellow  Patches  and  Stains  on  Prints,  222. 
Yellowness  of  the  Prints,  221. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED      H 

LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below, 
or  on  the  date  to  which  renewed.  Renewals  only: 

Tel.  No.  642-3405 

Renewals  may  be  made  4  days  prior  to  date  due. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


RBflUB 


_ 

MAR  2  819740  2 


JUN  ~i  3  1999 


LD21A-50m-2,'71 
(P2001slO)476 — A-32 


General  Library 

University  of  California 

Berkeley 


YD  02946 


